■ I 



fhGL 



o q a q 8*ove 






B 



^HR 



awSanborm S 
^NewYork 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 
./"pViTh 

tow — ®mm¥ |n 

Shelf JSfe 

zrasr 

UNITED STATES OF AMEBICA. 



OUR LANGUAGE 



ITS USE AND STRUCTURE 



TAUGHT BY 



PRACTICE AND EXAMPLE 



GORDON A. SOUTHWORTH 

Master of the Prescott School, Somerville, Massachusetts 
AND 



F. B. GODDARD, Ph.D. (Harv.) 



o4l 





LEACH, SHEWELL, & SANBORN 

BOSTON AND NEW YORK 



f£» 






Copyright, 1887, 
G. A. SOUTHWORTH and F. B. GODDARD. 



Electrotyped by J. S. Cushing &= Co., Boston. 



PREFACE 



The arrangement of this book in two parts has made it possible 
to give under one cover both instruction and exercises for practice 
in nearly all kinds of elementary language work. 

Part I is not an introduction to Part II, but is designed to 
provide for children such training in the ready use of good English 
as they can never get by the study of grammar alone. The pre- 
eminent importance of this training is recognized by placing the 
material for it first, instead of relegating it to a few meagre pages 
at the end, as if it were to give a finishing touch to a long course 
of study. It ought rather to be used from the outset, whether the 
structure of language is taught at the same time or not. The man- 
ner in which Part I may be used is set forth in the Introduction. 

Part II is really an elementary text-book in grammar. Beginning 
with the Sentence, the essentials of form and structure are so pre- 
sented as to be thoroughly intelligible to children, for whom, of 
course, the whole book has been made. Abrupt transitions are 
avoided, and with a view to educating the reason as well as the 
understanding, an effort has been made to have each part naturally 
and logically connected with what precedes and what follows it. 
Each subject, moreover, is fully explained and illustrated, often by 
inductive exercises ; so that no one will call the book a mere skeleton 
to be filled out with great labor and varying success by teachers. 
Thoughtful study of the sections in large type and of the illustra- 
tive examples will enable the learner without much further help to 
apprehend the most important principles and to apply them intelli- 
gently in the practical exercises which make up more than half the 
body of the book. 

No chapter is entitled Syntax ; but the construction of sentences is 
developed from the beginning as fast and as fully as practicable, so 



iv PREFACE. 

that a child's acquaintance with verbs, for instance, is by no means 
deferred until he reaches the chapter so headed. Without intention- 
ally omitting any essential principle, much that has been engrafted 
upon English grammar from other languages is left out as false or 
burdensome. The invariable basis of classification for the parts of 
speech is use, and for inflection it is form. Cases, for example, are 
always treated as forms, of which the noun has two, and a few pro- 
nouns three, the many constructions of these parts of speech being con- 
sidered separately. In the direction of simplicity verb-phrases are 
distinguished from simple verbs. 

For presenting the analysis of sentences to the eye, a new and sim- 
ple method is followed. Its value has been thoroughly tested both in 
illustrative blackboard work and in the preparation of lessons by 
classes. It is easily applied to all ordinary sentences without re- 
writing them, or writing them in an extended form. For long or 
involved sentences other methods are substituted. 

The infinitive and the participle receive fuller treatment than is 
customary, because, being as common and as important as other ele- 
ments of the sentence, they ought to be equally well understood : and 
their construction has been developed with a view to making even 
children see that it is generally the same as that of nouns and adjec- 
tives. Without saying that the subjunctive should be abandoned or 
that it should be preserved, the fact is recognized that in a certain 
class of expressions nothing else can be used. 

The sections that treat of derivation contain only the most elemen- 
tary statements, but they are inserted with the hope that teachers will 
give their pupils the pleasure of using this key to the making and 
meaning of words. 

Very little is said of idioms or of elliptical expressions. Such of 
them as are not too difficult for any but well-advanced students, can 
be readily explained by one who is familiar with the regular con- 
struction. 



CONTENTS. 



PART I. 
chapter. page. 

Introduction 1 

I. Learning to Speak well, and learning to Write well . 3 

II. Talking and Beading 5 

III. Copying . 7 

IV. Capitals, Punctuation, etc. . . . . " . 11 

Capitals, 11; Punctuation, 12 ; Abbreviations, 13; Senten- 
ces and Paragraphs, 10 ; Quotations, 17 ; Marks used in 

» 

Correcting, 19. 

V. Dictation 20 

VI. Reproduction of Stories ....... 23 

VII. Letter-Writing ......... 32 

Heading, 33; Address, 35; Salutation, 37 ; Body of Let- 
ter, 38 ; Complimentary Ending, 39 ; Signature, 40 ; Fold- 
ing, 41; Superscription, etc., 41; Forms and Models, 43; 
Invitations, 51 ; Subjects for Letters, 52 ; Imaginative 
Letters, 57. 

VIII. Narrative-Writing . 58 

Personal Experiences, 58; Biographical Sketches, 62; 
Historical Sketches, 65. 



Vi CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER. PAGE. 

IX. Descriptive Writing 69 

Descriptive Words, 70; General Directions, 74 ; Definition- 
Making, 75; Comparison and Contrast, 75; General De- 
scriptions, 77 ; Geographical Descriptions, 78 ; Natural 
and Artificial Products, 80; Processes, 82; Animals, 83; 
Plants, 84 ; Persons, 85. 

X. Choice op Words 87 

Wrong Words, 87 ; Synonyms, 95. 

XL Paraphrasing , . . 102 

Transformation of Poetry, 103. 



PART II. 

I. Language and Grammar 1 

II. The Sentence : Kinds 5 

III. Subject and Predicate 13 

IV. Kinds or Words . 23 

V. Sentence-building 67 

VI. Sentence-analysis . . . • 94 

VII. Nouns 103 

VIII. Pronouns 141 

IX. Adjectives 168 

X. Verbs 182 

XL Adverbs 231 

XII. Prepositions 240 

XIII. Conjunctions 244 

XIV. Interjections 251 

XV. Infinitives and Participles 253 

XVI. Phrases, Clauses, and Combined Sentences . . . 274 

Index 283 



INTRODUCTION TO PART FIRST. 



TO TEACHERS. 

Besides the ordinary power of speech, there is that higher "lan- 
guage faculty," which like many other natural gifts varies greatly in 
degree among those who possess it. This difference appears in school 
and lasts through life. 

We note, however, as more important to us, the fact that what 
develops this faculty is the same for all cases ; namely, observation 
and practice, rather than reasoning and logical study ; and most per- 
sons admit that one must acquire some facility in the use of language 
before he can properly begin the study of grammar. 

But how shall we train a child to a ready use of good English ? 
It is not enough to say by practice ; for children are daily practising 
something and somehow, even if left to themselves. 

First, then, let us provide something to talk about. Thought must 
precede expression ; and if from lack of information one's ideas are 
still meagre and confused, so will be his attempted expression of 
them. Children talk fluently about such matters as are interesting 
or familiar to them ; and when a good teacher turns their eyes and 
their ears to new subjects, these in turn become attractive. But their 
knowledge is very limited at first ; and until we have made certain 
that they have resources to draw upon, we must not ask them to talk 
much nor to write much. 

In the second place, besides thus extending the range of familiar 
subjects, let us set before our pupils the best of models for imitation. 
They will then be always approaching the best of English even if 



Z INTRODUCTION TO PART FIRST. 

they do not achieve it; they will have become acquainted with it 
early in life; and there is much of it that always appeals to them. 

Further, we must use every effort to have expression keep pace 
with knowledge, and so make the possession of it secure. 

To speak now more practically, — let it be the first step in every 
language exercise to see that the children thoroughly understand 
what it is about. Have them find out the facts, or give them the 
facts in good form, and then train them to the best forms of expres- 
sion. 

For developing the language faculty, various methods that experi- 
ence has shown to be of great value, are exemplified under separate 
headings. Each of these divisions is introduced with explanations or 
suggestions ; but where the printing of exercises would have defeated 
the object of them, or where they would have been obviously unneces- 
sary, none are given. If the methods prove to be successful, the credit 
will be due to the teacher who applies them; for they have to be 
adapted to attainments and circumstances : and even if those who 
begin this book have already been fairly w r ell trained in the uses 
and forms of language, the rule still holds, that practice must be 
constant. 

Do not overlook the need of talking freely with children about 
their tasks : what they learn with their eyes alone they are likely only 
to memorize or copy. And above all remember that the maxim of 
"the more, the better" applies only to what is thoroughly done. 

It is by no means intended that this part of the book be used con- 
secutively. Exercises of certain kinds are here grouped together, but 
the question of which ones and how many to select is left to teachers, 
for they will be influenced by the varying needs of classes, and by 
other incidental or imposed requirements. 



CHAPTER I. 

LEARNING TO SPEAK WELL, AND LEARNING TO 
WRITE -WELL. 

AN EXERCISE IN READING. I. 

1. We have to learn to use our language in two differ- 
ent ways. Let us see what they are. 

2. When we speak, we use the throat and mouth, and 
people hear our voices ; when we write, we use the hand, 
and people see our writing. 

3. Spoken words are in the air ; written words are on 
paper. 

4. For carrying our voices, the air is always ready ; for 
writing-, paper and ink must be prepared. 

5. Voices can be heard only a little way off; writing 
may be read wherever we choose to send it. 

6. What we speak is heard at once, or not at all; and 
even if the echo comes back to us, it will soon be gone 
forever. What we write is not read till somebody sees 
it ; we can keep it if we wish, and it may last a thousand 
years. 

7. When speaking, we must not stop between our 
words to think, since people cannot wait for us ; when 
writing, we may stop or begin wherever we wish. 

8. Our voices rise and fall — now to ask a question, 
now to emphasize a word. In our writing, we can only 
put marks of punctuation here and there. 



4 LEARNING TO READ AND WRITE WELL. 

9. Those who run their words together when they speak 
are often hard to understand ; if we write our words in a 
jumble, they are not easily read. 

10. We have to take care in speaking, not to mispro- 
nounce our words; in writing", not to misspell them. 

11. Of voices, some are smooth and some are harsh ; 
some handwriting looks attractive, and some is most un- 
sightly. 

12. We can speak in many different tones, and show 
that we are merry, or angry, or sad ; what we write looks 
all alike. 

13. When we speak to any one, he usually knows who 
is talking; when we write letters, we usually sign our 
names. 

14. Talking begins in the nursery ; writing begins in 
school. 

15. We have to speak a thousand words for every one 
we write. 

16. Some men become famous speakers ; some become 
famous writers. All well-educated persons speak their 
language well. 

17. It is really the same language that we use in these 
two ways, and the words are the same ; but it is easy to 
make mistakes in using them, and it takes a great deal of 
practice to acquire the art of speaking on all subjects both 
easily and well. 

AN EXERCISE IN WRITING. 2. 

Copy the paragraphs numbered 2, 3, 5, 8, and 10. 

AN EXERCISE IN TALKING. 3. 

Tell five ways in which speaking differs from writing. 



CHAPTER II. 

TALKING AND READING. 
TO THE TEACHER. 

[1. Oral vs. "Written Work. Conversation-Lessons. Is not 

the importance and the dignity of oral work in language often under- 
estimated? Do we not need to talk well, as much as to write well; 
and, as a test of culture, does not the English that we speak count for 
more than what we write ? 

It is the greater formality, not the relative importance, of written 
speech, that betrays us into comparative neglect of what the name 
language implies. The same words, to be sure, and the same syntax, 
serve for both ; but, — 

(1) The custom of adding to one's available vocabulary can seldom 
be left to writing, and never to reading ; we do not get possession of 
a word till we hold it ready for use. 

(2) Children must learn to select the appropriate word on the 
instant ; writing always lets us take our time. 

(3) Only by oral practice can we master the principles of agree- 
ment and concord, and catch the true spirit of English idiom. 

(4) Pronunciation and inflection are more worthy to be studied 
than the arbitrary and formal rules of spelling and punctuation, to 
which they correspond ; and 

(5) Why should we not strive as much for purity of tone as for 
the humble excellence of calligraphy ? 

Many of the exercises of one sort and another that are given in 
the following pages, and, in fact, almost any subject that can be made 
interesting to children, may serve for a conversation-lesson. By 
questioning, we can find how much they know, and we must somehow 
induce them to use what knowledge they have. All that we add to 
this must be made perfectly clear, and the meaning of every word 
they use after us must be thoroughly understood. 



6 TALKING AND READING. 

If they have the chance to express their knowledge as soon as they 
get it, paying some attention to arrangement, and following the best 
model we can set them, they will surely gain in ease of expression ; 
and even if their out-of-school English is full of slang and uncouth 
forms, it will at least have a competitor. 

With us, good English is a part of good manners, and ought to 
last all day. Whether or not we devote a special hour to it, we should 
exemplify and demand it . as we do good behavior in all our school 
work. There is room for language-teaching in connection with many 
another lesson, especially in geography or history. Instead of com- 
mitting to memory more than a sentence or two, it would be better 
for the children to give the facts in well-chosen words of their own, 
rightly pronounced, and properly put together. 

Finally, then, on the side of oral language, — it is the tongue, and 
not the hand, that usually fixes one's habits for good or for bad.] 

[2. Reading as a Means of Language Culture. It is likely that 
reading helps a child more in his school life than any other single 
form of language instruction. When taught to the best advantage 
and used as an exercise, it quickly develops the habit of getting 
thoughts out of a printed page, and so prepares one for general read- 
ing. It of course imparts knowledge, and serves as a model for the 
communication of it. 

There should be an abundance of interesting and instructive selec- 
tions, touching upon various subjects, and adapted to the attainments 
of the learner. Children seem to understand much that they cannot 
yet express ; but if questioning has made it certain that the meaning 
of a paragraph just read is clearly understood, the reader or some 
classmate should be called upon to reproduce it at once in his own 
words. This will take more time than the reading itself, but its in- 
fluence on the quality of the reading will soon be apparent, and it 
is obviously useful in developing the power to catch a thought and 
then express it. At the end of the exercise some one may give the 
gist of the whole lesson, or at another time all may be required to 
reproduce it in writing. 

This system of reading and reproducing orally and in writing, if 
continued through the whole school course, will make an important 
part of one's education.] 



CHAPTER III. 

COPYING. 

[To the Teacher. Those who are learning to write, first copy script 
models, so as to get the forms of letters and of words; then they copy ordi- 
nary print, where, amidst many details, they see how words and sentences 
are grouped upon a page in lines, paragraphs, and stanzas. It is one thing to 
form words with a pen: it is quite another to put them on a blank sheet of 
paper just where they ought to go, writing neatly, accurately, and in an 
orderly fashion. 

This is the principal object to be attained in exercises for copying; -but, 
directly or indirectly, they serve many other good ends. They prepare the 
way for understanding all the simple rules for capitals and punctuation; and 
we know that words often copied come to have a "natural look," which is a 
guide to correct spelling. 

Selections in either prose or verse may be transcribed from the blackboard, 
from print, or from memory. At first, such exercises will be frequent; as 
occasional tests, they will always be useful ; and to one who can see his own 
progress by comparing a former effort, they will be rather interesting. 

When the proper writing materials are ready for use, the various direc- 
tions for indenting, and so on, are to be given orally;. and the copy must be 
the result of an honest effort to write something legible, neat, and accurate, 
even if it is not perfect in arrangement. 

The paragraphs and the stanzas that are copied with toil and trouble in 
our school-days are apt to make a lasting impression upon us. Models that 
have been so carefully studied will not be altogether forgotten, and this makes 
it worth while to choose them only from the best. 

In this book, besides the appended selections and those in Chapter V., 
there are others scattered here and there that may also serve.] 

EXERCISE 4. 

1. Make a written -copy as nearly perfect as you can. Notice 
where to leave a margin, and do not omit the punctuation marks, nor 
misspell any of the words. 

2. Learn a selection that you have written, so that you can re- 
write every part of it from memory. 



8 COPYING. 

1. If you would create something, you must be some- 
thing. Goethe. 

2. "Habit is a cable; we weave a thread of it every 
day, and at last we cannot break it." 

3. Be what nature intended you for, and you will suc- 
ceed. Be anything else, and you will be ten thousand 
times worse than nothing. Sidney Smith. 

4. " When the tangled cobweb pulls 

The corn-flower's blue cap awry, 
And the lilies tall lean over the wall 
To bow to the butterfly, 
It is July." 

5. There is always a best way of doing everything, if it 
be to boil an egg. Manners are the happy ways of doing 

things. Emerson. 

6. Robins in the tree-tops, 

Blossoms in the grass, 
Green things a-growing 

Everywhere you pass ; 
Sudden little breezes, 

Showers of silver dew, 
Black bough and bent twig 

Budding out anew ; 
Pine-tree and willow-tree, 

Fringed elm and larch, 
Don't you think Maytime's 

Pleasanter than March ? t. b. Aldrich. 



SELECTIONS FOR COPYING. 9 

7. Small service is true service while it lasts : 

Of humblest friends, bright creature, scorn not one ; 
The daisy, by the shadow that it casts, 
Protects the lingering dewdrop from the sun. 

Wm, Wordsworth. 

8. " He who loves to read, and knows how to reflect, 
has laid by a perpetual feast for his old age." 

9. Still let it ever be thy pride 
To linger by the laborer's side ; 
With words of sympathy or song 
To cheer the dreary march along 
Of the great army of the poor. 

Longfellow. 

10. " Over and over again, 
No matter which way I turn, 

I always find in the book of life 

Some lesson I have to learn. 
I must take my turn at the mill ; 

I must grind out the golden grain; 
I must work at my task with a resolute will, 
Over and over again.'' 

11. " How dismal you look ! " said a Bucket to his com- 
panion, as they were going to the well. 

"Ah!" replied the other, "I was reflecting on the use- 
lessness of our being filled, for, let us go away never so full, 
we always come back empty." 

" Dear me ! how strange to look at it in that way ! " 
said the Bucket. "Now, I enjoy the thought, that, how- 
ever empty we come, we always go away full." 



10 COPYING, 

12. "Some people," says Alphonse Karr, "are always 
finding fault with Nature for putting thorns on roses. I 
always thank her for having put roses on thorns." 

13. My fairest child, I have no song to give you ; 

No lark could pipe to skies so dull and gray ; 
Yet, ere we part, one lesson I can leave you 
For every day. 

Be good, sweet maid, and let who will be clever; 
Do noble things, not dream them, all day long : 
And so make life, death, and that vast forever 
One grand, sweet song. 

Charles Kingsley. 

14. Dost thou love life ? Then do not squander time, 
for that is the stuff life is made of. benjamin Franklin. 

15. Queen Elizabeth, daughter of King Henry VIII., 
was born in 1533. She was five-and-twenty years of age 
when, Nov. 17, 1558, she rode through the streets of 
London, from the Tower to Westminster Abbey, to be 
crowned. She died at Richmond, March 24, 1603. 

Elizabeth had been Queen three years when Mary 
Stuart, Queen of Scots, embarked at Calais for Scot- 
land. She sat on deck, weeping, and said many times, 
"Farewell, France! Farewell, France! I shall never see 
thee again." 

16. " O curfew of the setting sun ! O Bells of Lynn ! 

O requiem of the dying day ! O Bells of Lynn ! " 



CHAPTER IV. 

CAPITALS, PUNCTUATION, ETC. 

[To the Teacher. The most of those who hegin this book will have 
already written so much as to follow by force of habit many of the simple 
rules here presented in review. If not learned, they can be used for reference 
until it is time to apply those given in Part II.] 

I. RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS. 

1. A Capital Letter should be used to begin — 

1. Every sentence. 

2. Every line of poetry. 

3. Every direct quotation. [See p. 17.] 

4. All individual or special names of persons, places, 
months, and days ; as, — 

William Shakespeare, Spain, September, Saturday. 

(a) All words made from them ; as, — 

Shakespearean ; Spanish. 

(5) And all abbreviations of them ; as, — - 

Wm, Sept. 

5. All names applied to God. 

6. The principal words in titles. Thus : — 

The President of the United States. 
" The Land of the Midnight Sun." 

7. The words I and O. 



12 CAPITALS, PUNCTUATION, ETC. 

II. RULES FOR PUNCTUATION. 

2. The Period [.] must be used after — 

I. Every complete sentence that is not a question nor 
an exclamation. 

II. All abbreviations or initial letters. 

III. A heading, title, or signature, when used alone. 

3. The Question-mark [?] must be used after — 

IV. Every complete question. 

4. The Exclamation-point [ ! ] must be used after — 

V. Every expression that is very exclamatory. 

5. The Comma [,] must be used to separate from the 
rest of the sentence — 

VI. The name of the person spoken to. Thus : — 

John, come forward. 

VII. A direct quotation, or each of the parts of one if it 
is divided. [See p. 17.] 

The Comma must also be used to separate — 

VIII. Words and expressions of the same kind when 
there are not words between to connect them all. Thus: — 

The flags were red, white, and blue. 

IX. The parts of a sentence that is made up of two or 
more sentences. Thus : — 

We have come, and you must go. 

6. The Apostrophe ['] must be used to denote — 

X. Possession. 

XL The omission of letters in contracted words. 

7. Quotation-marks [" "] must be used to enclose — 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



13 



XII. Every direct quotation, or each of the parts into 
which it is divided. [See Rule 7 and §§ 14-18.] 

XIII. The title of a book or periodical, if the title is 
long. 

8. Italics [Italic letters] are used in printing, for — 

XIV. A word that is very emphatic. 

XV. Short titles of books ; names of ships ; etc. 

In writing we should underline such words or titles. 

9. The Hyphen [-] must be used to separate — 

XVI. The parts of some compound words. 

XVII. The syllables of a word written on different lines. 



III. ABBREVIATIONS. 

10. Sometimes, instead of writing the whole of a word, 
we write only a few of the letters of it. 

These short forms are called Abbreviations. 



Hei 


•e are some of the most common forms. There is a full list in the dictionary. 




Denoting Time. 


Jan. 


January. 


[Many of the following are abbreviations 


Feb. 


February. 


of Latir 


i words.] 


Mar. 


March. 


inst. 


the present month. 


Apr. 


April. 


ult, 


the last month. 


Aug. 


August. 


prox. 


the next month. 


Sept. 


September. 


M. 


noon. 


Oct. 


October. 


A.M. 


before noon. 


Nov. 


November. 


P.M. 


after noon. 


Dec. 


December. 


B.C. 


before Christ. 


mo. 


month. 


A.D. 


in the year of our Lord. 



14 



CAPITALS, PUNCTUATION, ETC. 



Titles used before a Name. 



Mr. Mister 


Rev. 


Reverend 


Gen. General 


Messrs. Messieurs 


Hon. 


Honorable 


Col. Colonel 


Mrs. Mistress 


Prof. 


Professor 


Maj. Major 


(pron. Missess) 


Pres. 


President 


Capt. Captain 


Dr. Doctor 


Gov. 


Governor 


Lieut. Lieuten. 


Titles used after a Name. 


LL.D. Doctor of Laws 




Esq. 


Esquire 


D.D. Doctor of Divinity 




Supt. 


Superintendent 


Ph.D. Doctor of Philosophy 


Sec. 


Secretary 


M.D. Doctor of Medicine 




Treas. 


Treasurer 


A.M. Master of Arts 




Sr. ' 


Senior 


A.B. Bachelor of Arts 




Jr. 


Junior 


M.C. Member of Congress 




P.M. 


Post-Master 


Common Names. 




Benj. Benjamin 


Fred. 


Frederick 


Sam. Samuel 


Chas. Charles 


Geo. 


George 


Theo. Theodore 


Dan. Daniel 


Jas. 


James 


Thos. Thomas 


Edw. Edward 


Jos. 


Joseph 


Wm. William 


Miscellaneous. 




Anon. Anonymous 




No. 


Number 


Ave. Avenue 




p. pp. 


page pages 


Chap. Chapter 




P.O. 


Post-Office 


Co. County or Compa 


n y 


P.S. 


Postscript 


do. the same 




St. 


Street or Saint 


e.g. for example 




viz. 


namely 


etc. and the rest 




vol. 


volume 


i.e. that is 




vs. 


against 


N.B. Take noti 


ce 




&c. 


and so forth 



11. Instead of writing the whole of a person's name, we 
often write only the first letter of each part of the name 
These letters are called Initials. So, — 

W. S. for Walter Scott ; A. Lincoln for Abraham Lincoln. 



PUNCTUATION. 15 

EXERCISE 5. 

Write answers to the following, making complete sentences, and 
applying the rules for punctuation : — 

[The numbers at the end refer to the rules on pages 12 and 13.] 

1. What three manufacturing cities are on the Merrimac? (viii) 

2. What fruits grow within the tropics ? (viii) 

3. -What is the title of the last book that you read? (xiii) 

I. Into what do the St. Lawrence and Mississippi rivers flow? (ix) 

5. Whose dictionary do you use ? (x) 

6. Write the following with three contractions : Do you not think 
he will say it is too much? (xi) 

7. Xame the natural divisions of time, (viii) 

8. What materials are used in building houses ? (viii) 

9. Ask your teacher a question, using her name and title, (vi ; iv) 
10. Give the exact date and time of writing this exercise, and add 

your signature, (ii ; iii) 

EXERCISE 6. 

Write the following as six lines of poetry. Indent every other line, 
beginning with the second. There should be nine capitals. 

" I would not hurt a living thing, however weak or small ; the 
beasts that graze, the birds that sing, our father made them all; 
without his notice, I have read, a sparrow cannot fall." 

EXERCISE 7. 

Tell why each punctuation-mark is used in these sentences : — 

1. How many days are there in a leap year? (iv) 

2. Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust? (iv ; x) 

3. Boys, have you ever read " Tom Brown at Rugby "? (vi; xiii) 

4. Now abide th faith, hope, charity, (viii) 

5. The houses were low, narrow, and dingy, (viii) 

6. Julius Caesar wrote, "I came, I saw, I conquered." (vii; xii) 

7. " Experience keeps a dear school, but fools will learn in no 
other." (ix ; xii) 

8. Which sounds better, " No, sir, I can't " ; or, " Yes, ma'am, I'll 
try"? (vii; vi; xi; xii) 



16 



CAPITALS, PUNCTUATION, ETC. 



9. "Little Lord Fauntelroy" was originally published in St. 
Nicholas, (xiii; ii; xv) 

10. "We have met the enemy," wrote Perry to Harrison, "and 
they are ours." (vii; xii) 

11. Come! I tell j^ou to come. See the Red-coats, (v; xiv; xvi) 

12. Mr. Jas. H. Mason, Brooklyn, N. Y. (ii; § 41, page 37) 



EXERCISE 8. 

1. Answer these questions orally in complete sentences. 

2. Answer them in writing, applying the rules for capitals and 
punctuation. 



1. What is your full name? 

2. In what town, county, and state 

were you born ? 

3. What is your birthday? 

4. What is one of your favorite 

books ? 

5. What newspaper or magazine 

do you read? 



6. To what foreign lands would 

you especially like to go ? 

7. What rivers have you ever 

crossed ? 

8. What holidays do you most 

enjoy? 

9. Why are they celebrated? 

10. Who is governor of the state ? 



IV. SENTENCES AND PARAGRAPHS. 



12. The letters that make a word are written close 
together, but we leave a little space between the words 
that make a sentence. 

Between two sentences we should leave twice as much 
space as between two words. 

13. A Paragraph is a group of sentences more closely- 
connected in meaning with one another than with what 
precedes or follows. A single sentence may make a para- 
graph. It should begin on a separate line, and a little 
farther from the margin than the other lines begin. 



QUOTATIONS, 17 

EXERCISE 9. 

1. Answer the following questions in sentences, arranging your 
replies in two paragraphs. Where will the second paragraph begin ? 

What is a farmer? What does he do in the spring? In the sum- 
mer? In the autumn ? What tools does he use ? What does he raise ? 
What kinds of animals does he keep ? Would you like to be a farmer ? 
Give your reason. 

What is a blacksmith? What is the place in which he works 
called? Tell the use of his bellows. His anvil. What other tools 
does he use? Why is his business a useful one? 

2. Write two paragraphs comparing the life of a soldier with that 
of a sailor. 



V. QUOTATIONS. 



14. When we introduce the exact language of another 
person into what we are writing, we make what is called 
a Direct Quotation. Thus : — 

Prince Edward and his division were so hard pressed that a mes- 
sage was sent to the King asking for aid. " Is my son killed? " said 
the King. "No, sire." "Is he wounded or thrown to the ground?" 
" No, sire," said the messenger ; " but he is very hard pressed." " Then," 
said the King, "I shall send no aid; because I am resolved that the 
honor of a great victory shall be his." 

15. In writing a direct quotation, we must remember 
three things : — 

(1) To begin it with a capital. 

(2) To enclose it in quotation-marks. 

(3) To separate it from the rest of the sentence by a 
comma, unless it is a question or an exclamation. 

If the quotation consists of several sentences, it may be preceded by a colon [:]. 



18 CAPITALS, PUNCTUATION, ETC. 

EXERCISE 10. 

1. Fill the following blanks with direct quotations. 

1. is a familiar proverb. 

2. The first line of the poem is — — 

3. The Golden Rule is 

4. said the spider to the fly. 

5. is an excellent motto. 

6. asked the customer. 

7. replied the clerk. 

8. My father has often said to me 



2. (a) Write a sentence containing the motto of your class or 
school. 

(&) Write two containing quotations from an author that you like. 

(c) Write the following correctly : — The last words of John Quincy 
Adams were this is the last of earth ; I die content. 

16. When we introduce anything into our writing as 
a thought or an opinion of another person without using 
his exact language, we make an Indirect Quotation. 

Thus : — 

Direct. The King said, " I have lost the hearts of my people." 
Indirect. The King said that he had lost the hearts of his people. 

Indirect Quotations frequently begin with the word 
" that," and they require no quotation-marks. 

EXERCISE II. 

Change the direct quotations on page 21 into indirect. 

17. A Divided Quotation is one which is given in two 
parts, with some of the writer's/ own words between. 

Each part should be enclosed in quotation-marks, and 
generally separated from the rest by commas. Thus : — 

" I propose to fight it out on this line," wrote General Grant, " if it 
takes all summer." 

18. In writing a conversation between two persons, 



MARKS USED IN CORRECTING. 19 

what each one says should generally occupy a separate 
paragraph. Thus : — 

" Colonel Miller," asked General Brown, " can you silence that 
battery ? " 

" I'll try, sir," replied the gallant colonel. 

EXERCISE 12. 

Write a short conversation — 

(1) Between two children about their favorite amusement. 

(2) Between a merchant and one of bis customers. 

(3) Between a boy and a sailor. 



MARKS USED IN CORRECTING WRITTEN WORK. 

19. [The use of the following marks to indicate errors in written work may 
be illustrated on the blackboard. All but the caret should be repeated in the 
margin so as to attract attention. Where there is more than one mark, a line 
(/) may be used to separate them.] 

c under either a small letter or a capital. The other form 

should be used. 
X a cross between two words. Begin a new sentence. 
/ this line drawn through a letter or mark means that it 

is wrong. 
8 the de-le in the margin. Omit what is marked. 
A the ca-ret. Something is wanting, — a letter, a word, or 

a mark, which may be written in the margin. 
O a circle around a mark in the margin. Use this mark. 
[ ] brackets enclosing words. These words should be omitted 
in copying. 
IT or No If these signs mean begin or do not begin a new paragraph, 
s under a word. The spelling is wrong. 
"ww these letters under a word. A wrong word has been used, 
gr these letters in the margin. An error in grammar. 
? ? these marks in the margin. Inquire about this. 



CHAPTER V. 

DICTATION. 

[To the Teacher. Writing from dictation is a step beyond copying from 
a model, and holds a high place in language work. It is like taking notes : 
you must have your wits about you, listen attentively to catch the thought, 
and be ready with the written form of it. New words and expressions become 
familiar, and the use of correct forms becomes habitual. 

The exercise is one that ought to be used every day, even if we never pass 
the limit of four or five lines that are fresh and well adapted to the purpose. 

Since the class, and not the teacher, must do the work of correcting so 
many daily exercises, the selections will have to be taken from one of the 
text-books, or else copied beforehand on the blackboard, and curtained till the 
writing is finished. The exercise may often have the form of a letter. 

Suppose the slates or slips of paper are ready for work. The selection is 
first read through to show its general character. Then it is dictated only once, 
and with a pause at the end of each phrase, or clause, or line, only just long 
enough for writing it. 

If all exchange their own copies with different ones at different times, and 
are urged to detect what errors they can, the marking (which may be that 
given on page 19) will show that we see the faults of others more easily than 
our own. After returning the copies, each member of the class will revise his 
own work by comparing it with the original, now first disclosed. 

A rule for capitals or punctuation may occasionally be given; but the repe- 
tition of the same exercise at once, or after a day or two, will be the best way 
to profit by the errors made at first. 

Only a few selections are given here, for they should generally be such as 
are not already familiar. But there are many to be found in other parts of 
the book.] 

1. Whatever you dislike in another person, take care to correct in 
yourself. Sprat. 

2. O velvet Bee ! you're a dusty fellow, — 

You've powdered your legs with gold ; 
O brave marsh Mary-buds, rich and yellow, 

Give me your money to hold ! Jean Ingelow. 



SELECTIONS FOK DICTATION. 21 

3. Dr. Doddridge one day asked his little girl how it was that 
everybody loved her. " I do not know," she said, "unless it is that I 
love everybody." 

4. I wait for my story, — the birds cannot sing it, 

Not one, as he sits on the tree ; 
The bells cannot ring it ; but long years, O bring it ! 

Such as I wish it to be. Jean Ingelow. 

5. Capt. Nathan Hale was hanged as a spy during the Revolution. 
His last words were, " I only regret that I have but one life to give 
for my country." 

6. "At Frankfort," said little Simson, "I once saw a watch that 
did not believe in the existence of a watch-maker. It had a very poor 
movement, by the way, and a pinchbeck case." H. Heine. 

7. How far that little candle throws his beams ! 
So shines a good deed in a naughty world. 

Shakespeare. 

8. So nigh is grandeur to our dust, 

So near is God to man, 
When duty whispers low, " Thou must," 
The youth replies, " I can. 1 ' Emerson. 

9. William H. Prescott, John L. Motley, and George Bancroft are 
distinguished American historians. Prescott wrote "The Conquest 
of Peru " and " The Conquest of Mexico." Motley wrote " The 
Rise of the Dutch Republic." Bancroft wrote the " History of the 
United States." 

10. Sponge is a porous substance, found adhering to rocks in the 
Mediterranean Sea, among the islands of the Archipelago. Good 
sponges are also found in the Red Sea, on the Florida Coast, and 
among the Bahama Islands. Those from the Greek Islands, however, 
are the finest sponges of commerce. 

11. Once, upon a raw and gusty day, 
The troubled Tiber chafing with her shores, 



22 DICTATION. 

Caesar said to me, " Dar'st thou, Cassius, now 

Leap in with me into this angry flood, 

And swim to yonder point ? " Shakespeare. 

12. "William Cullen Bryant, the first American to attain great 
poetical eminence, was born at Cummington, Massachusetts, Nov. 3, 
1794. His father, Peter Bryant, was a physician of high character 
and attainments, and he fostered William's poetic taste. The poet, 
in his beautiful Hymn to Death, says of his father : — 

' For he is in his grave who taught my youth 
The art of verse, and in the bud of life 
Offered me to the Muses.' 

" Bryant died at the age of eighty-four." 

13. " Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the most popular of Ameri- 
can poets, was born in Portland, Maine, Feb. 27, 1807. His father, 
Stephen Longfellow, was a well-known jurist, and, like Bryant, he 
was descended from John Alden, the youngest of the Mayflower's 
Pilgrims. 

" From 1835, the time of his appointment as Professor of Modern 
Languages and Literature in Harvard University, till his death, 
March 24, 1882, Longfellow lived in the stately old Cambridge man- 
sion, which is so often pictured, and so often made the object of 
modern pilgrimages." 

14. " Know old Cambridge ? Hope you do. 

Born there ? Don't say so ! I was too : 
Born in a house with a gambrel roof, — 
Standing still, if you must have proof." 

" Yes, in the old gambrel-roofed house looking out on the College 
Green, lived Rev. Dr. Abiel Holmes, — pastor of the First Church in 
Cambridge, Massachusetts, but of wider fame as the author of the 
American Annals, — and there was born to him the son, Oliver Wen- 
dell, who was to shed new lustre on the family name, and take rank 
as the brightest of American poets and essayists. His birth-date is 
August 29, 1809." 



CHAPTER VI. 

REPRODUCTION OF STORIES. 

[To the Teacher. Stories in prose or verse afford excellent material for 
oral or written work, because children like to hear them and can easily under- 
stand and remember them. In reproducing a story there is nothing to be 
invented or hunted up, as in original composition; yet the process requires 
something more than a mere copy or repetition. One has the facts given to 
him properly arranged and well expressed, but he must draw upon his own 
resources in selecting words and forming sentences. Good stories are common 
and easy to find, and they may serve to teach morals as well as history. 

Suppose one to have been chosen that is suited to the age of the children, 
is not too long, and is worth remembering. Let us outline a plan for using it. 

The selection is read aloud once by the teacher or by one of the children. 
Then the teacher tells the story, varying the language but not the order of 
narration, — twice if necessary, but still in different words, always avoiding 
rhyme and poetic diction, that there may be no memorizing of set forms. 
This done, questions are asked by the class or the teacher to make sure that 
the facts, descriptions, and allusions are thoroughly understood. 

Now some member of the class tells the whole story orally, and is criticized 
by classmates and teacher for misstatements or important omissions, for mis- 
use of words, for giving the matter in bits instead of as a whole, or for "spoil- 
ing the story." Others give their versions and receive instruction or criticism 
as to the relative prominence of different parts. 

Next, but more profitably at another session, all write the story from 
memory. Topical outlines (on the blackboard) should be used sparingly: 
they improve the story but dull the memory. After criticism and correction, 
final copies may be made as in dictation exercises: 

For variety the selection may be put into the hands of the children to be 
read until they are familiar with it. It is no great task to make a collection 
of fifty short stories that may be written or cut out and pasted upon cards, 
and numbered for distribution in the class. After an interval long enough for 
all to read their selections two or three times, the cards will be collected, and 
each member of the class in turn will have a story to tell, or to write, correct, 
and copy as before. 

Ultimately a long story may be used with profit, even if it last several 
weeks. The interest of a class can be easily maintained during the reproduc- 
tion, in a condensed form, of such stories as Bryant's " Sella," Mrs. Burnett's 



24 REPRODUCTION OF STORIES. 

"Little Lord Fauntleroy," or Trowbridge's "Kelp Gatherers." (See St. 
Nicholas for 1885-'86.) 

As a rule the selection should be new to the pupil, and hence only four are 
printed here ; but the titles of a few that are readily accessible are appended, 
with occasionally an outline.] 

EXERCISE 13. 

Read and then reproduce from the outline the story of — 

THE OYSTER AND ITS CLAIMANTS. 

Two travellers discovered on the beach 

An oyster, carried thither by the sea. 
'Twas eyed with equal greediness by each ; 

Then came the question whose was it to be. 
One, stooping down to pounce upon the prize, 

Was thrust away before his hand could snatch it. 
" Not quite so quickly," his companion cries ; 

"If you've a claim here, I've a claim to match it; 
The first that saw it has the better right 

To its possession ; come, you can't deny it." 
" Well," said his friend, " my orbs are pretty bright, 

And /, upon my life, was first to spy it." 
" You ? Not at all ; or, if you did perceive it, 

I smelt it long before it was in view ; 
But here's a lawyer coming — let us leave it 

To him to arbitrate between the two." 
The lawyer listens with a stolid face, 

Arrives at his decision in a minute ; 
And, as the shortest way to end the case, 

Opens the shell and eats the fish within it. 
The rivals look upon him with dismay : — 

" This Court," says he, " awards you each a shell ; 
You've neither of you any costs to pay, 

And so be happy. Go in peace. Farewell ! " 

Moral. 

How often, when causes to trial are brought, 
Does the lawyer get pelf and the client get naught ! 

La Fontaine. 



KEPRODUCTION OF STORIES. 25 



OUTLINE. 

1. The discovery. 4. The lawyer and his fee. 

2. The rival claims. 5. The verdict rendered. 

3. The dispute. 6. The lesson taught. 

EXERCISE 14. 

Read, and after telling to your classmates for their criticism, re- 
produce in writing from the outline the story of — 

THE CHOICE OF KING MIDAS. 

King Midas, prince of Phrygia, several thousand years ago, 
Was a very worthy monarch, as the classic annals show ; 

******** 
Now this notable old monarch, King of Phrygia, as aforesaid, 
(Of whose royal state and character there might be vastly more said) 
Though he occupied a palace, kept a very open door, 
And had still a ready welcome for the stranger and the poor. 

Now it chanced that old Silenus, who, it seems, had lost his way, 
Following Bacchus through the forest, in the pleasant month of May, 
(Which wasn't very singular, for at the present day 
The followers of Bacchus very often go astray), 
Came at last to good King Midas, who received him in his court, 
Gave him comfortable lodgings, and — to cut the matter short — 
With as much consideration treated weary old Silenus, 
As if the entertainment were for Mercury or Venus. 

Now when Bacchus heard the story, he proceeded to the king, 
And said he : " By old Silenus you have done the handsome thing ; 
He's my much-respected tutor, who has taught me how to read, 
And I'm sure your royal kindness should receive its proper meed ; 
So I grant you full permission to select your own reward, — 
Choose a gift to suit your fancy, — something worthy of a lord ! " 
" Gracious Bacchus ! " cried the monarch, " if I do not make too bold, 
Let whatever I may handle be transmuted into gold ! " 

Midas, sitting down to dinner, sees the answer to his wish, 
For the turbot on the platter turns into a golden fish ! 
And the bread between his fingers is no longer wheaten bread, 



26 REPRODUCTION OF STORIES. 

But the slice he tries to swallow is a wedge of gold instead ! 

And the roast he takes for mutton fills his mouth with golden meat, 

Very tempting to the vision, but extremely hard to eat; 

And the liquor in his goblet, very rare, select, and old, 

Down the monarch's thirsty throttle runs a stream of liquid gold ! 

Quite disgusted with his dining, he betakes him to his bed, 

But, alas ! the golden pillow doesn't rest his weary head ! 

Nor does all the gold around him soothe the monarch's tender skin ; 

Golden sheets to sleepy mortals might as well be sheets of tin ! 

Now poor Midas, straight repenting of his rash and foolish choice, 
Went to Bacchus, and assured him, in a very plaintive voice, 
That his golden gift was working in a manner most unpleasant, — 
And the god, in sheer compassion, took away the fatal present. 

Moral. 

By this mythologic story we are very plainly told, 

That though gold may have its uses, there are better things than gold ; 

That a man may sell his freedom to procure the shining pelf; 

And that Avarice, though it prosper, still contrives to cheat itself! 

John Godfrey Saxe. 
OUTLINE. 

Introduction. Who was Midas, and what was his character ? 

Silenus loses his way. 
Hospitably treated by the king. 
Bacchus's offer to Midas, and the reason for it. 
J \ The choice of Midas. 
How it affected his food. 
How it affected his rest. 
His repentance and request. 

Moral. There are better things than gold. 

EXERCISE 15. 
Prepare an outline, and reproduce from it the story of — 

THE FROST. 

The Frost looked forth one still, clear night, 
And he said, " Now I shall be out of sight ; 



REPRODUCTION OF STORIES. 27 

So through the valley and over the height 

In silence I'll take my way. 
I will not go like that blustering train, 
The wind and the snow, the hail and the rain, 
Who make so much bustle and noise in vain ; 

But I'll be as busy as they." 

Then he went to the mountain and powdered its crest, 
He climbed up the trees, and their boughs he dressed 
With diamonds and pearls, and over the breast 

Of the glimmering lake he spread 
A coat of mail, that it need not fear 
The downward point of many a spear 
That he hung on its margin, far and near, 

Where a rock would rear its head. 

He went to the windows of those who slept, 
And over each pane like a fairy crept ; 
Wherever he breathed, wherever he stepped, 

By the light of the moon were seen 
Most beautiful things. There were flowers and trees, 
There were bevies of birds and swarms of bees, 
There were cities, thrones, temples, and towers, and these 

All pictured in silver sheen ! 

But he did one thing that was hardly fail', — 
He peeped in the cupboard, and, finding there 
That all had forgotten for him to prepare, — 

" Now, just to set them a-thinking, 
I'll bite this basket of fruit," said he ; 
" This costly pitcher I'll burst in three, 
And the glass of water they've left for me 

Shall ' tchick ! ' to tell them I'm drinking." 

Hannah Frances Gould. 
EXERCISE 16. 

Reproduce from an outline, which you have previously prepared, 
the following story: — 



28 REPRODUCTION OF STORIES. 



DRIFTED OUT TO SEA. 

Two little ones, grown tired of play, 
Roamed by the sea, one summer day, 
Watching the great waves come and go, 
Prattling, as children will, you know, 
Of dolls and marbles, kites and strings ; 
Sometimes hinting at graver things. 

At last they spied within their reach, 
An old boat cast upon the beach ; 
Helter-skelter, with merry din, 
Over its sides they scrambled in, — 
Ben, with his tangled, nut-brown hair, 
Bess, with her sweet face flushed and fair. 

Rolling in from the briny deep, 
Nearer, nearer, the great waves creep, 
Higher, higher, upon the sands, 
Reaching out with their giant hands, 
Grasping the boat in boisterous glee, 
Tossing it up and out to sea. 

The sun went down, 'mid clouds of gold ; 
Night came with footsteps damp and cold ; 
Day dawned ; the hours crept slowly by ; 
And now across' the sunny sky 
A black cloud stretches far away, 
And shuts the golden gates of day. 

A storm comes on with flash and roar, 
While all the sky is- shrouded o'er ; 
The great waves, rolling from the west, 
Bring night and darkness on their breast. 
Still floats the boat through driving storm, 
Protected by God's powerful arm. 

The home-bound vessel Sea-bird lies 
In ready trim, 'twixt sea and skies ; 
Her captain paces, restless now, 



REPRODUCTION OF STOEIES. 29 

A troubled look upon his brow, 

While all his nerves with terror thrill, — 

The shadow of some coming ill. 

The mate comes up to where he stands, 
And grasps his arm with eager hands, — 
" A boat has just swept past," says he, 
" Bearing two children out to sea ; 
'Tis dangerous now to put about, 
Yet they cannot be saved without." 

" Naught but their safety will suffice ! 
They must be saved ! " the captain cries. 
" By every thought that's just and right, 
By lips I hoped to kiss to-night, 
I'll peril vessel, life, and men, 
And God will not forsake us then." 

With anxious faces, one and all, 
Each man responded to the call ; 
And when at last through driving storm, 
They lifted up each little form, 
The captain started, with a groan, — 
" My God is good, they are my own ! " 

Rosa Hartwick Thorpe. 

EXERCISE 17. 

Reproduce from the outline, after hearing or reading the story of 

The African Chief. W. C. Bryant. 

OUTLINE. 

Introduction. Description of Captive. Appearance. History. 

" Request for freedom. Offers ornaments. 
Details The refusal and intention of captors. 
of <l Disclosure of gold concealed in hair. 
Story. Request renewed, and reasons given. 
h Again denied, but gold taken. 

Conclusion. Effect on the Chieftain. 



30 REPRODUCTION OF STORIES. 



EXERCISE 18. 

Listen while it is read, and, with the help of the outline, reproduce 
the story of 

The Inchcape Rock. Robert Souther/. 

OUTLINE. 

Introduction. Condition of air, sea, and ship. 

Why the holy Abbot placed a bell on the rock. 

How the sea looked on a certain day. 

Sir Ralph walks the deck in merry mood. 
Details Proposes to vex the Abbot. 
of ^ Cuts the bell from the float. 
Story. His voyage, success, and return. 

A storm encountered. 

Anxiety about the Inchcape Rock. 

Fate of the ship. 
Conclusion. Effect on Sir Ralph. 

EXERCISE 19. 

After hearing it read, write from the outline the story of 

The White-footed Deer. W. C. Bryant. 

1. The time and place. 2. Appearance of deer and her habits. 

3. The protection of the cottage dame. 4. Tradition of the Indians. 
5. The hunter's success. 6. His fatal shot. 7. The red-men's re- 
venge. 8. Desolation. 

EXERCISE 20. 

After it has been made the subject of a reading and conversation 
exercise, write from this outline the story of 

Paul Revere's Ride. Longfellow. 

1. The time. 2. The signal light. 3. The object of the ride. 

4. The listening friends discover the movements of the British. 

5. The impatient watching of Revere. 6. The signal at last! He 
mounts and is off ! 7. The ride to Medford. 8. Lexington village : 
its appearance. 9. The ride ended. 10. The result. 



EXERCISES. 31 

EXERCISE 21. 

Study the poem carefully, and then write the story from the out- 
line. Make several direct quotations. 

Nauhaught, the Deacon. Whittier. 

1. Nauhaught and his circumstances. 2. His dream. 3. He visits 
his traps. 4. His success. 5. Thoughts of home and of his needs. 
6. His prayer. 7. He finds the purse. 8. The conflict with tempta- 
tion. 9. Reasons for keeping the money; for not keeping it. 
10. The noble resolve. 11. He visits the inn and finds the owner. 
12. The reward. 13. His feelings as he goes home. 14. The angel. 

EXERCISE 22. 
Prepare an outline and reproduce the story from it. 

1. Bruce and the Spider. B. Barton. 1 

2. Small Beginnings. C. Maekay. 1 

3. The Milkmaid. /. Taylor. 1 

4. The Mountain and the Squirrel. it. W. Emerson. 

5. The Nantucket Skipper. J. T. Fields. 

6. God's Judgment on the Wicked 1 p c { j 

Bishop. \ ' ° U l6y ' 

7. Incident of the French Camp. R. Browning. 

8. Arnold Winkelried. Montgomery. 

9. The Sandpiper. Celia Thaxter. 

10. The Little Match Girl. Hans Christian Andersen. 

11. Abou Ben Adhem. Leigh Hunt. 

12. Horatius at the Bridge. Macaulay. 

13. Skipper Ireson's Ride. ./. G. Whittier. 

14. The Story of Ruth. Bible. 

15. The Legend of Bregenz. A. A. Proctor. 



EXERCISE 23. 

Try to invent and write an original story ; give it a name, and 
sign yourself as the author. 

1 Bryant's Library of Poetry and Song. 



CHAPTER VII. 

LETTER-WRITING. 

[To the Teacher. As a means of training in purely original composi- 
tion, letter-writing claims our attention first. Like story-telling it is easy to 
begin with, and it is moreover an art that soon becomes practically useful and 
even necessary; for everybody that can write, writes letters, and most persons 
write nothing else. 

However much the matter may have been neglected, no argument is needed 
to show that the ordinary forms and conventions of this the most common of 
the uses of written speech ought to be made familiar to all who study language 
in school. 

The text of this chapter is intended to serve as a guide in writing the exer- 
cises, and in ordinary correspondence. 

The exercises are of various sorts, but they do not, of course, cover the 
whole wide field of written correspondence, and the teacher must supply what 
seems desirable. Where many exercises are grouped together, selections must 
be made to suit the age and ability of the children ; for it is not intended that 
all the exercises be taken in course. 

The work will be examined and corrected by the class as in dictation exer- 
cises, and if we can succeed in developing a spirit of keen and kindly criticism, 
it will prove very effective against the worst errors in spelling, form, punctua- 
tion, and arrangement. Not a few awkward or ungrammatical expressions 
will, however, pass unnoticed, and such faults — the typical ones having been 
put on the blackboard — may be made the subject of a special lesson, during 
which the class shall do the correcting, and as far as possible give reasons for 
the changes made. The letters will then be carefully copied — twice, if need 
be, to make them perfect. 

For variety, the letters of yesterday may be exchanged and answered, and 
within certain limits each one may be written and addressed to some class- 
mate. It is a good plan to have genuine letters mailed occasionally to parents 
or friends ; and a letter written at the beginning of the year may be kept for 
comparison with what can be done after a year's practice. Other devices will 
suggest themselves and keep the subject interesting.] 

20. The most general use of written language is for 
Letters, which we send addressed to absent persons to 
whom we have something to say. 



THE HEADING. 33 

21. It is the custom nowadays to write letters with black ink on 
white letter-paper or note-paper, — beginning with the folded edge at 
the left; and to send them away in sealed envelopes. 

22. Kinds. Letters may, of course, be written upon 
any subject. They may serve in transacting business; 
they may give or ask for information or advice ; or they 
may take the place of ordinary conversation between 
friends and acquaintances. Sometimes they are formal ; 
sometimes familiar. 

23. Form. By custom a formal letter is made to con- 
sist of six parts : — 

1. The Heading, which tells where and when the letter 
is written, and generally shows where the reply should 
be sent. 

2. Tire Address, which gives the name and title of the 
person or firm to whom the letter is written, and some- 
times the residence or place of business., 

3. The Salutation, a courteous or affectionate greeting 
that serves to introduce what follows. 

4. The Body of the Letter, which is the real message. 

5. The Complimentary Close, which is the final ex- 
pression of respect or regard. 

6. The Signature of the writer. 

Select and name the six different parts of each letter given on 
pages 49-51. 



I. THE HEADING. 



24. The Heading of a letter should give the place and 
date of writing. If a reply is to be sent to the place of 
writing, the letter should show exactly where to send it 
by mail. 



34 LETTER-WRITING. 

25. If a reply is to be sent elsewhere than to the place of writing, 
the fact should be indicated after the signature. (Form 14.) 

1. Place. 

26. If in a city or in any other place where they need to be 
known, give first the name or number of the house and the name 
of the street (or else the post-office box). Thus: Turner's Inn, 
Green St. ; or 25 Park Sq. (Forms, pp. 43-47.) 

27. Always give the name of the city, town, or post-office 
where letters are received. 

Often there are several post-offices in one township. 

28. When it would be of any use to tell the county, give that 
next. It sometimes happens that in one state there are several towns 
with similar names, so that the name of the county is needed to dis- 
tinguish them ; and if a town is small and little known, it may hasten 
the delivery of the reply to add the county. (Form 21.) 

29. Next comes the name of the state, unless you are sure that it 
is not needed. 

2. Time. 

30. In familiar letters, and whenever it needs to be known, give 
first the day of the week. (Forms 4 and 7.) In other letters, give 
only the month, the day of the month, and the year. Do not give 
the hour unless there is good reason for adding it. (Form 12.) 

31. Sometimes it seems as if nothing need be given hut the hour of the day, but 
if a letter is kept for any length of time, it is always convenient to be able to tell when 
and where it was written. 

3. Position of Heading. 

32. The heading may occupy one, two, or three lines according to 
the space it requires. It begins an inch or more from the top, and 
about half way across the page toward the right. Each of the fol- 
lowing lines, if one is not enough, should begin a little farther to the 
right. Always put the whole of the date on one line. 

4. Heading Omitted. 

33. Except in business letters, the heading is often omitted, and 
the place and time are given at the left of the page after the signature. 
(§ 59, and Forms 12 and 28.) 



THE ADDIIESS. 35 

5. Punctuation. 

34. Put commas after every part, except between the name and 
the day of the month, and between the name and the number of the 
street or post-office box. Put a period after abbreviations, and at the 
end of the whole. 

EXERCISE 24. 

1. Make perfect copies of the headings given on pages 43-47, 
in their proper position. 

2. Write the following as headings properly arranged. 

1. Oct. 25, 1891, Saratoga, State of New York, 217 Spring St. 

2. I am in Andover, in Oxford Co., in Maine, at the Eagle Hotel, 
July 21, 1890. 

3. At Home on Washington's Birthda}*, 1894, Thursday. 

4. In the city of New York, Sept. 25, 1892, at the Murray Hill 
House, Saturday. 

5. With a friend who lives at No. 294 in Duquesne St. in the city 
of Pittsburg, state of Pennsylvania, to-day. 

6. In Worcester, Massachusetts, at the Polytechnic Institute, April 
26, 1894. 

7. Atlanta; 1892; Georgia; (P. O. Box 725;) May 17. 

8. Tennessee; Knox Co. ; 1893; Fair Garden; 29th of November. 

9. San Francisco; Aug. 16; Pacific Ave.; No. 216; 1891; Cali- 
fornia, Sunday. [Give the time as heading ; the jylace, at the end.] 



II. THE ADDRESS. 

35. The Address of a letter consists of the name and 
title of the person or firm to whom it is written. Some- 
times, especially in business letters, the residence or place 
of business is added. 

36. The address is necessary in business letters where either the 
letter or the address is to be copied before mailing, and in any letter it 
may serve for reference (Forms 8, 25, 27) ; but to give it separately, in 
a familiar letter, seems useless and too formal. 



36 LETTER-WRITING. 

1. Name and Title. 

37. To the name of the person addressed it is polite to add an 
appropriate title. 

(a) Before the name we may write : — 
Mr. in addressing a man. 

Mrs. [Mistress] in addressing a married woman. 

Messrs. [Messieurs] in addressing two or more men. 

Miss (pi. Misses) in addressing an unmarried woman or a girl. 

Master (pi. Masters) in addressing a boy. 

Rev. or The Rev. before the full name or some other title in 

addressing a clergyman; as. The Rev. C. F. Howe; Rev. 

Mr. Howe ; The Rev. Dr. Howe ; not Rev. Howe. 
Hon. in addressing members of Congress, and a few other high 

officials. 
Dr. in addressing a physician, or any person who has one of 

the titles M.D., Ph.D., D.D., LL.D., etc. 

(b) After the name we may write : — 

Esq. in addressing lawyers, many government officers, and 
sometimes other gentlemen. 

(c) There are many other titles, such as those given on page 14, 
which may be used in addressing the persons to whom they rightfully 
belong. 

(d) Sometimes two or more different titles are used together ; as, 
Prof. Wra. Hale, M.D., LL.D. ; but if both have the same meaning, as 
Dr. and M.D., they cannot be used together. With Esq., no other 
title should be used ; and we cannot say Mr. Dr. Brown. 

2. Residence. 

38. By residence is meant the name of the post-office and state ; 
sometimes also the street and number where a person receives letters. 
(Forms, pp. 46, 47.) 

3. Arrangement and Position. 

39. The address may, like the heading, occupy one, two, or three 
lines. The first line should contain nothing but the name and title, 
and should not be indented from the left margin. Each of the fol- 



THE SALUTATION. 37 

lowing lines should be written a little further to the right than the 
one before it. 

40. In business letters the address should be given on the line below 
the heading. . In familiar letters, if given in full, it should begin on 
the line below the signature. In other letters it may be written at 
the end instead of at the top, especially when the heading is very long. 
(Form 17.) 

41. Put commas after the parts of the address, but put a period 
at the end. 



III. THE SALUTATION. 

42. The Salutation is a courteous or affectionate greet- 
ing that serves to introduce the body of the letter. 

1. Form. 

43. Its form depends upon who is writing, who is addressed, and 
what degree of intimacy or friendship there is between the two. 
Hence there are many forms from which to choose, and only a few can 
be given here. Where several forms are given in succession, the first 
are the most formal, the last are the most familiar. 

44. In business or formal letters of any sort we write : — Sir (pi., 
Sirs or Gentlemen) ; Dear Sir or Sirs ; My dear Sir. Madam (pi., 
Ladies) ; Dear Madam ; My dear Madam. 

A young unmarried woman is addressed simply as (for example) 
Miss Brown, or Dear Miss Brown. (Forms, pp. 44-47.) 

45. In more familiar letters, we may use one of the preceding 
forms, or such as these: — Friend Brown ; My dear Friend ; Cousin 
Clara ; Dear Brown ; My dear Ned ; My dear Mother ; Dear Papa. 
(Forms, pp. 43-47, 51.) 

(a) The salutation is sometimes made part of the body of the letter 
(Form 13), and is sometimes omitted in formal notes. (Ex. 28, 
Nos. 20 and 40.) 

2. Position. 

46. If the address consists of three lines, the salutation may be 
indented as much as the second line. (Forms 25, 27.) If it con- 



38 LETTER- WRITING. 

sists of one or two lines, the salutation should be written a little to 
the right. (Forms 8, 19, 22.) 

If the address is omitted here, the salutation should begin at the 
left margin of the line below the heading. 

3. Punctuation. 

47. After the salutation, use a comma, a colon, a comma and a 
dash, or a colon and a dash, according to the degree of formality with 
which the letter begins. The comma is the least formal. 



EXERCISE 25. 

1. Study carefully the position, capitals, and punctuation of the 
introductions in the models on pages 43-47, and then make perfect 
copies of them. 

2. Write the various addresses and salutations that you might 
use — 

1. In writing to your father ; your brother or sister ; your uncle ; 
your grandmother ; your cousin. 

2. In writing to an intimate friend; to your teacher; to a physi- 
cian ; to a neighbor. 

3. In writing to a clergyman who is a stranger to you; to the 
chairman of your school committee ; to the superintendent of schools. 

4. In writing to a lawyer living in your town ; to the member of 
Congress from your district ; to some firm doing business near you.- 

5. In writing to a firm doing business at 723 Broadway, New York 
City, and named A. C. Armstrong & Co.; to the publishers of this 
book ; to the publishers of the geography or of the reading-book that 
you use. 



IV. THE BODY OF A LETTER. 

48. The Body of a letter is the message itself, or what 
we have to say. 

49. Contents, (a) Do not make such needless remarks as "I 
now take my pen in hand," or " I will now close," but begin with 



THE COMPLIMENTARY ENDING. 39 

something worth saying ; express yourself clearly and concisely in 
complete sentences grouped into paragraphs according to the sense ; 
and stop when you have done. Use simple words, avoiding slang. 

50. (b) The reply to a business letter should acknowledge its 
receipt, give its date, and refer to its contents. We may say, for 
example, "Your favor of the 28th ult., in answer to our inquiries, is 
at hand," etc. 

51. Position, Form, etc. (a) The Body begins under the end of 
the introduction, or if that is long, on the same line with the saluta- 
tion. There should be a narrow margin at the left extending the 
whole length of the page ; we should write legibly, without crowding, 
and never divide a syllable at the end of a line. 

52. (b) None but the most common abbreviations are to be used, 
and no figures except in connection with dates and large sums of 
money. The sign & is to be used only in the name of a firm. 

[Two letters are given as models on pages 49, 50.] 



V. THE COMPLIMENTARY ENDING. 

53. The Complimentary Ending is a courteous assur- 
ance of good faith, respect, or affection, which is added to 
the end of a letter. One should say something that is in 
keeping with the style of letter he has written, and with 
his relations to the person addressed ; and he should at 
the same time express his feelings truthfully. 

1. Form. 

54. (a) In business or formal letters the common forms are : 
Yours truly; Yours respectfully ; (Very) truly yours ; (Very) respect- 
fully yours ; and in extremely formal letters, such as are sometimes 
written to high officials, Form 17, or something similar, may be used. 
(Forms, pp. 43-47.) 

55. (b) For friendly or familiar letters there is a great variety of 
other forms, some of which are given in the models. Other examples 



40 LETTER-WRITING. 

are : Faithfully yours ; With highest regards ; Yours ever ; Most truly 
yours; Yours sincerely; Your loving sister; Believe me to be your 
devoted son ; Ever most gratefully yours. (Forms 3, 6, 14.) 
"Yours, etc.," is vulgar. 

2. Position. 

56. The conclusion begins on the line following the body of the 
letter, and is indented about one-third the width of the page. If it is 
long, it should be arranged in two or three lines, like the heading and 
the address. (Forms, pp. 43-47.) 



VI. THE SIGNATURE. 

57. The Signature is the name of the person who 
writes or dictates the letter. When a person writes as 
an officer of any sort, he should add his official name 
(Form 9) ; and when he signs for another person, he 
should give both names. (Form 20.) 

58. (a) The signature is to be written distinctly on the line fol- 
lowing the complimentary ending, and indented about half the width 
of the page. 

(b) In all business, formal, or extremely important letters, it should 
be written in full, and in every other letter when there might possibly 
be a doubt as to who sent it. 

(c) A lady when writing to a stranger must sign her name, so as 
to show whether she is to be addressed as Miss or as Mrs. (Form 28.) 

Place and Date, or Address, at the End. 

59. (a) When the place and date are not given as a heading, they 
are to be added in the same form at the left of the page, on the line 
below the signature. (Forms 12 and 28.) Or, — 

(b) The address may be put here if omitted at the beginning. 
(Form 17.) 

(c) The place to which a reply is to be sent should be given here, 
if it is not the same as the place of writing. (Form 14.) 



THE SUPERSCRIPTION. 41 

EXERCISE 26. 

1. Copy the closing forms from the models on pages 43-47 upon 
slate or paper ruled the width of a note or letter sheet. 

2. Write the different forms of conclusions and signature that 
you might use — 

1. In a formal letter to a stranger ; to your employer ; to a judge. 

2. In a familiar letter to your mother; to a cousin ; to an intimate 
friend; to your teacher, giving her address at the left. 

3. In a business letter to a lawyer; to a dry goods firm; to the 
editor of a paper ; to the mayor of a city, asking him to address you 
at some place named. 



VII. FOLDING. 



60. Fold a letter-sheet by turning up the lower edge to meet the 
upper evenly. Then fold twice the other way, — first the left edge, 
then the right, making the distance between the folds a little less 
than the width of an envelope. 

61. Fold the lowest third of a note-sheet toward the top, then 
fold the upper end toward the bottom. If the paper is wider than 
the length of the envelope, fold it in the middle from the bottom to 
the top, and then from left to right. If the envelope is nearly square, 
fold the paper once in the middle. 



VIII. THE SUPERSCRIPTION, ETC. 

62. The Superscription, or address upon the envelope, 
is chiefly for the benefit of post-office officials, and should 
be written so fully and so distinctly as not to hinder in 
any way the speedy delivery of the letter. 

63. Contents. Besides the name and title with the post-office 
and state, there must be sometimes the street and number ; some- 
times the county; and sometimes the name of the person to whose 
care the letter is sent, — all arranged as shown in Forms 29-32. 



42 LETTER-WRITING. 

64. Position. The superscription should generally be on the 
lower half of the envelope, and each successive line should begin a 
little further toward the right. 

65. The Punctuation may be the same as that used in the letter, 
especially to indicate abbreviations and to separate two parts when 
written on the same line. 1 

66. Return Address. The name and address of the sender are 
often placed in the upper left-hand corner, that the letter may be 
returned if not delivered. This is sometimes an important addition, 
as when it is not certain that the letter is rightly addressed, or when 
the full name of the writer is not given inside. (Form 31.) 

67. The stamp should be evenly placed, right end up, about an 
eighth of an inch from the right-hand corner. Enclose 'a stamp to 
pay for sending the reply, when you think it only fair to do so. 

EXERCISE 27. 

Rule rectangles on slate or paper, making them 6 inches long by 3$ 
inches wide, or the exact shape of some envelope, and copy the 
models on p. 48. Then write envelope addresses to the follow- 
ing : — 

1. To your father, mother, brother, sister, or some classmate ; to 
some clergyman of your acquaintance ; to a friend, in care of his or 
her father, whose post-office box is numbered 47. 

2. To a doctor of divinity named Gilbert Shaw, living in Cincin- 
nati, at 24 Wilson Sq. 

3. To Emmett, Kent & Co., a firm of lumber dealers, doing business 
in Clinton, Illinois. Clinton is in De Witt Co. 

4. To the wife of John Alden, who lives in the capital of Ohio, at 
91 Garfield Avenue. 

5. To a firm composed of Miss Decker and Miss Fitz, whose mil- 
linery rooms are in Cumberland St., No. 201, Nashville, Tennessee. 

1 Note.— Punctuation is meant to be a help to the reader; and on envelopes where 
there is nothing but the address, and where the parts of that are already separate 
enough, the best usage is to omit terminal points as in the last two models. 



FORMS. 43 

68. Observe carefully the position, capitals, and punc- 
tuation of the parts of a letter as given in these forms. 



[Form 2.] 


[Form 1.] 

cAeAAtton, Trio*/, 25, 1888. 



J a/wo Maw& if&iAs will k& alaci 



[Body of letter.] 

to- fatOAs. tts. 



[Form 3.] 



Vowb a^f&@/tC(yyuat& o/yyu, 

(ScUv-ciuC fScb&orb. 



[Form 4.] 

Le^ovvicjLcyvi, 771oa&. , 

[Form 5.] 



if cm hscw-t of u/mi/yuLurucf^ <yvi&, ets 



[Form 6.] 






44 LETTER-WRITING. 



[Form 


3.] 


[Form 7.] 

Rcvy oft., ISuxykLifvi, 


IS, 


I890. 



MaAs THouLovm, — 

VcmAs i/Vb^lViAAji of tJtf, lOtfu 

im^ytamt mn^&uinu/yua, tit®, . 



[Form 9.] 



y&wv& tA/uLu, 

W-iiLLami S. W-ovuL, 



[Form 10.] 

ht(Ub 7HV&& Blown.- 

Jyv t&folaf to yowo hi/yuci i/n/oi- 
taytio / i / i fcyv 3"fuuA^cicij w&xfc 

[Form II.] 

1}uiAf tAAiiAf tpwifo, 

[Form 12.] 

"M& <£W," 



FORMS. 45 



[Form 13.] 






600 &leA)-&LcwicL Oiu&. 


t 




@,k>l&axfo, j.wvi& 


5, 


/ifyt> 



J on/aat till items, onaf cL&ouh THotfoub, 

wfuajb OU QAAA/fOAAMsb, tts 

[Form 14.] 

•£wu, nnnf cttwh THot/uuv, 

Vowi taui/na d'OMaktub, 

<9l&ao<& c6vi&&t to 



[Form 15.] 

^ontiruemtat /i-ot&l, 

W^(MA{MsCfLo / }^, «A @,., 

[Form ,6.] § fullf V, !88<?. 

Tfty d&uu'cfw : ■ — 

hifatutsmrnvb, ets 

[Form 17.] 

J ami, cfw, 

Vowis ok&diwvt fr& / bv~ci / ) / iyb, 

/'fori. lAhru. TA. &waa£&, 

(Ahm/cU/Ov, Vt. 



46 LETTER-WRITING. 



[Form 18.] 

oft. Louies, ?Vlo-., 

[Form 19.] 

</b6b(ms&&, Jr. y. 



&(Ml<& fi/yid a cbioupb, tts.. 



[Form 20.] 



[Form 21.] 

f<UM,& J7, /8<?3. 

[Form 22.] 

S )/ wl>UjQJvb r l& of "eft. ofriMAoLobOs," 

Jt&w- y&ik duty. 

n^a^aajM/} / it to onaf aclcUb&'Ms, &t& 

[Form 23.] 






FORMS. 47 



[Form 24.] 

^taZ& c/tovnvaZ of&Ao-o-l, 

[Form 25.] ^ *, '*??■ 

fdotitcm, iTiaofo. 
§z/nttumvyb .- —3 ) L&a&& jovw-cuuL (yy 
CLcLcb / nv& Eoc/fQAy&ms, tt& 

[Form 26.] 






[Form 27.] 

0> 



/fa. /if&wiy o/. /{aAAsUyiat&yv, 

7?ly dz&v tfi/c : — W--UL yaw hj 
i/vu'loimb <m&, t£& 



[Form 28.] 



48 



LETTER-WRITING. 
FORMS OF SUPERSCRIPTION. 




A LETTER. 49 

&hnAA&cLvu, COioa. 26, /887. 

■ 

Vxyw kwicyw- c/ totct ucyw laot ti/vn& aM&wt tk& qavamm im, 
tk& o-W/hcvbcl, — (yiit w-kat do- ucno tkvnk/ no-^v- ? /1~awu 
t&ll cnct u&ot&vdau, and (yiofa& kios tittle <sxmL. 1A^& all 
tk<ncakt k& mvcoXs (y-& kadly kuit ; (yut wk&n w~&> A/l<sJc&d 
kw)}v ufo, k& itHiQAv't &v-&n> (vu/nvfo&d. 

€., c/ tktnk, tklo, t& tk& -follt&ot v-a&atuyw J &V-&V 
kad, c/ owl qx> ka/Jd/Jbu alt tk& ttm&/ TTlamtAyva qa&uqs cf 
o-uakt to- tkanky you to-i l&ttwia r /yi& &o-wl& k&v&. (tyyvd tk& 
kXtt&noy ai& i&al iswn ivnd&v tk& kau ryuaw-, lov tk&u (nt& 
&a&k otk&if & tavlos, amx£ a&iat&k a& vi tk&u w-&v& cOv&ad- 
iavltu ancj^vu : kilt tk&u' r v& not. 

Jb-ld <J t&ll ifcyw aAcnct tk& £a / vm< 6-ou, cf w-and& / uf 
/f&'a> ao/ aoo-d aa> <sx^n 6~& to- r/i&, and l&ta> / i*v& &&& ki/wi> 
milk, tk& &cyn^Qy. &k&u &at o^alt oj^ tk& ixxeJob wA&ii k& 
cfiA>-e^ It to- tk&nv, and tk&uv to-ncjfw&2> aA,& a& uync^k ao, a 
(yiu&k. lAMi&n tk& wwi t& kot, tk&u ti& do-urn, lond&v tk& 
tv&&& and ®k&w- tk&w &iid. 

But c/ kaii-em;' t kali t/uvyu& to- t&ll uo'w ab-cmt vtcLima 
vn tk& koAf &a\t, asvicl jsA/sJo\jyia b-& / LVb&&, and qamzA tun a& 
w~& kav~& ia\jwu dayo, vvi tk& old Cfa\, r L&t j&laAfLna o&ko-ol 
and dolU/! ofo- / ht&aos& tak& a ao-o-d-twt tov n<yw~, 



lAcywb lo-v-tn^ Uttl& aivl, 

?yiaA^i&. 



50 LETTER-WRITING. 

/W Wwuiem, oft., 

71%. (EcLw-ciuL <@. ^faimmsuv, 

La/i(ybt/yu&&, TTlcwsb. 
b&cii- cfw . — - J wulA to cup^oiM jov 
Ut& jamlt'Uyvb wki@Jv j<yw cidv-uituhb i/ru tJu, 
Wh&i/yii/yba //< jou,iy] / ial." 

J a/m tAAAytbb / ) / v lA&cubfc otcL, a/yui Asouoo jvuayb 
m^tLd/UsajUxl fumv tA& (ZcLa/m/3b efoJbooL. J 
a/nv w-dZ a/nct tituyyia, a/nct rvot afbculcL of 
w-ov£. J iJums£ J &a/ns zouuvu fowv dottcbv^ 
cb w&tA, a/ncL oJudl tvu to k& javUhfyidL to 
wuif um/ployuv. 

wlm t&L&fu&'b, TTlv. Soul, cunci a/yuytJi&b fwwu 
tA& (pruth/yrua/yb fov wfumv J waiAui cUwLwa 

/{ouiAAf £7. fed/yn/u/Yub&. 



FORMS FOR NOTES OF INVITATION, ETC. 51 

[To the Teacher. Informal invitations may follow one of the preceding 
letter-forms. Formal invitations and replies are written in the third person 
upon note paper or cards. They are dated at the hottom, and no signature is 
added. The following models may he used.] 



FORMAL INVITATION. 

fowruif cm, 3^ii&adaif &u£/ybL / wa / TTlouy l5fJv, cut 

cicjfvt 0-'(£o&£. 

INVITATION ACCEPTED. 
INVITATION NOT ACCEPTED, 

tfb& MAslo-WMs ■ill/yw&a, of kub wuybhs&v fivo- 

VZ/nt& JhUb (MM/fitoMM, of T?\<A& SbttcLl/Vbd^ 

ki/yui {/yLvitafcloru jov 3u^adcuy &v-emA/yva / 
THaof ISUv. 



52 LETTER- WRITING. 



EXERCISE 28. 

Upon a properly shaped page, write the very best letter 
you can, whether long or short, and whatever the subject. 
Refer constantly to preceding forms and directions. 

1. Your father wishes you to bring your copy-book home that he 
may see your improvement in penmanship. Write a letter to your 
teacher, asking permission to do this. You may say which book you 
mean, when you would like to take it, or how your father came to ask 
about your writing. (Use Forms 1, 10, 23.) 

2. Your teacher thinks you have been rather careless in your 
writing, and wishes your father to wait until the close of the term 
before examining the book. W r rite to your father a letter explain- 
ing the matter fully. (Use Forms 1, 2, 3.) 

3. A friend of yours, named ,-has invited you to drive next 

Saturday afternoon. Write to your mother, who is in an adjoining 
town, asking leave to go, and telling her all you know about how- 
many are going, where you are to go, and how late you are to stay. 
(Follow Forms 7, 2, 3.) 

4. Your mother has a plan to receive company at that time, and 
wishes you to be at home. Write to your friend about the matter, 
expressing your thanks and regrets. (Use Forms 7, 5, 6.) 

5. Miss Elsie White, of 13 Franklin St., Hartford, has received a 
Maltese kitten by express from her friend Mary Ford, who lives in 
Newington. She is much pleased, and writes a letter acknowledging 
the gift and mentioning some traits that she has discovered in her new- 
pet. Write Elsie's letter. (Select from Forms 4 and 7, 5, 10, and 13.) 

6. Master Harry W. Smith has just received by mail from his 
uncle Henry a copy of Dickens's ' ; A Child's History of England" as 
a birthday present. He writes to his uncle, acknowledging the receipt 
of the book, and expressing his thanks. The boy lives in Rutland, Vt., 
and- has always been fond of stories and of history. Write his letter. 
(Look at Forms 4 and 13, 2 and 8, 3, 23, before you decide what to 
use.) 



EXERCISES. 53 

7. Write to Messrs. Geo. Beck & Sons, Rochester, N.Y., asking 
them to send you six varieties of flower seeds, which you may name 
in a column, with the price of each set opposite. Write as if you 
enclosed a postal order for fifty cents. (Select what you think appro- 
priate forms.) 

8. Write to the postmaster in your city or town to ask the cost of 
sending books through the mail. Before writing, decide exactly what 
you mean to ask. (Compare Forms 13 and 18, 27, 23, 9, 20.) 

9. Write the answer that, as an officer of the Government, he 
sends you. (Select parts of Forms 8, 9, 17.) 

10. Write to a friend asking to borrow a certain book, and offer- 
ing to send in return one which you name. Tell why you want the 
one, and why you recommend the other. 

11. Write his reply. He explains when you can have the book, 
and why not at once. (Try Form 12.) 

12. Write to the chairman of the School Committee inviting him 
to be present at exercises to be held in your school on Washington's 
birthday. State the time, and tell what is to be expected. (Use Forms 
27, 23.) 

13. Monroe & Henry are expressmen doing business at 147 Spruce 
St. Write them to call for your trunk in time for a certain train 
which you wish to take at the nearest railroad station. Be very 
definite. 1 

14. Alice Harrison Doe invites her cousin, Mary Sands, to spend 
the holidays with her, and tells some of her plans for Christmas day 
and the week following. Alice lives at the Armington Home, Phila- 
delphia, and her cousin at 213 Murray Ave., Harrisburg. Refer to a 
previous visit. (Use Forms 15, 12.) 

15. Miss Mary's mother is ill, and she is unable to come. Write 
the reply in which she tells w r hat she is busy about. 

16. Having broken a neighbor's window while playing ball, you 
write an apology, and tell what arrangements you will make for re- 
pairing the damage, if the gentleman does not object. (Use Forms 7, 
8, 23.) 

1 The teacher may give direction for writing this in the third person. 



54 LETTER-WRITING. 

17. Write to the publishers of this book, asking to have a copy of 
it sent to some person who lives in a neighboring town, and who has 
asked you to buy a copy for him. Write as if you were to enclose pay- 
ment. (Use Forms 21, 25.) 

18. Suppose you have trouble with your eyes or head, and wish to 
drop one of your studies for a time. Write to some member of the 
School Board or to the Superintendent, making the request, giving 
your reasons, and referring to a physician. (Use Forms 27, 23.) 

19. Samuel Underhill, who lives in Park Square, Troy, N.Y., en- 
closes two dollars to D. Lothrop & Co., Publishers of Wide Awake, 
Boston, Mass., as the subscription price of that magazine for a year. 
Write his letter. 

20. Write to Wm. Constable & Co., asking that some samples of 
dress goods be sent to your mother's address. Give them some idea 
of the kind wanted. They do business in Broadway, New York City. 1 

21. Mrs. Betsey Trotwood, who lives in Syracuse, N.Y., at 95 Her- 
kimer St., has received a tub of butter from Ralph Lane, a farmer 
living in Jamesville, N.Y. It was sent with the understanding that 
it might be exchanged. It is not satisfactory, and Mrs. T. writes 
accordingly. Reproduce her letter. (Use Form 19.) 

22. Write to D. Appleton & Co., New York, asking them to send 
you by express, C.O.D., four books, or sets of books, which j 7 ou are to 
name. Give them an idea of the style of binding you prefer. 

23. Write to some clergyman whom you know, asking him for a 
letter of introduction and recommendation to a gentleman of whom 
you expect to seek employment in another city. 

24. Thomas Bond, Secretary of the " Alert " Base Ball Club, Clin- 
ton, writes a challenge, addressed to Frank Merriman, Secretary of the 
" Stars " of Fairview, for a series of three match games, beginning 
next Saturday afternoon. 

Merriman replies, accepting the challenge, and proposing a time 
and place for a meeting to arrange details. Write both letters. (See 
Forms 25 and 9.) 

1 May be written in the third person, without the writer's name. 



EXERCISES. 55 

25. Dr. Thomas F. Snow lives in Revere St., Boston, at number 96. 
He wishes to purchase a residence in one of the suburbs, costing not 
over $5,000. He writes to Geo. H. Chapin & Co., Real Estate Agents, 
Herald Building, Boston, telling them what he wants, and asking 
them to communicate with him. Write his letter. (Use Forms 13, 
25, 23.) 

26. They reply to Mr. Snow, describing two places they have for 
sale, — one in Arlington, and the other in Melrose. They give him 
an idea of the size of each house, of the location, price, terms of pay- 
ment, etc., and invite him to call and see them. Write their letter. 
(Use Forms 7, 14, 20.) 

27. FOR SALE. A farm of thirty-five acres, all under cultivation. 
Price reasonable, and terms easy. For full particulars, address 
Lemuel Mason, Sharon, Mass. 

Edward Poorman answers this advertisement. His address is P.O. 
Box 315, Providence, R.I. Write his letter. 

28. Mr. Mason replies, giving a full description of the farm, stating 
price, reasons for selling, and other facts which a purchaser might 
wish to know. Write his letter. 

29. Write to your grocer to send you " on account " a definite 
quantity of four kinds of groceries. You may complain of the quality 
of the last oil he sent you, and explain how it burns. You will try a 
different brand. 

30. TO LET. A small house, in a pleasant, retired situation. For 
particulars, address Jos. B. Arnold, P.O. Box 1492, Chicago, 111. 

Dr. Allan Downs, who lives at 396 Madison St. in the same city, 
answers this advertisement, asking information. Write his letter. 

31. Mr. Arnold replies, describing the house and giving its loca- 
tion, price of rent, etc. Write his letter. 

32. As clerk for Bond Brothers, dealers in hay and grain, 94 Port- 
land St., Lowell, Mass., write to the Freight Agent of the,B. & M. 
R.R., Portland, Me., inquiring about the delay in the shipment of 
three carloads of hay consigned to your firm on a certain date. 

33. SUMMER BOARDERS WANTED. The finest of mountain 
sites, magnificent scenery, good table, pure water, well-kept horses. 



56 LETTER-WRITING. 

For terms, etc., address Paul Donnelly & Son, Grand View House, 
Littleton, N.H. 

Answer this advertisement as if requested by your father, who 
wishes to spend three weeks among the mountains with his family. 
Ask about the terms, and such other matters as he would naturally 
wish to know about, and tell the accommodations wanted, time of 
your coming, etc. 

34. Write Paul Donnelly & Son's reply. 

35. Frank O. Poole lives at 165 Mt. Vernon St., Newport, R.I., and 
is making a collection of postage-stamps. He writes S. F. Renfew, 
92 Chatham St., New York, about prices of certain German and 
French stamps which he mentions. Write his letter. 

36. BOARD. A few boarders can be accommodated with a small 
family in a desirable part of the city. References exchanged. Ad- 
dress Mrs. Emma M. Todgers, 364 Ontario Ave., Buffalo. 

Writing at 64 Chester PL, Rochester, N.Y., answer this advertise- 
ment, describing the sort of room you wish, stating the price you can 
pay, and giving the name of some person for reference. 

37. The reply of Mrs. Todgers is unfavorable. Write what it 
might be. 

38. You wish to enter the Naval Academy at Annapolis, Md. 
Write to the member of Congress from your district, inquiring what 
the terms of admission are, and what steps you must take to secure 
the appointment. 

39. WANTED. A boy in a hardware store to learn the business. 
Must be honest, willing to work, and ready to give up the use of 
tobacco if desired. Address, stating age, residence, qualifications, and 
references, Frank Purington & Co., 294 Hudson St., Albany, N.Y. 

Guy Wheeler, who lives in Cohoes, N.Y., answers this advertise- 
ment. Write his letter. 

40. Annie Ryan has been for nearly five years in the employ of 
Mrs. Augustus Ward as a house-girl, and on leaving she receives a let- 
ter of recommendation to help her in finding another position. Write 
the letter, with this heading and salutation : "27 Franklin Ave., Ger- 
mantown, Pa. ; To whom it may concern : — " 



EXERCISES. 57 

41. Write to a friend, relating your first attempt at cooking or 
gardening. 

42. Write to your father, telling him about one of the books you 
are reading. 

43. Write to a classmate, telling what magazine you see each 
month, and what there is in it that especially interests you. 

44. Write to your mother, telling, in a merry, sprightly way, how 
you pass your time in school on days you like the best. 

45. Write to your sister, telling her about a day when everything 
went wrong with you, and whether it was your own fault or not. 

46. Write to a schoolmate, telling what your plans are for your 
future life after leaving school. 

EXERCISE 29. 

IMAGINATIVE LETTERS. 

In writing the following, the heading and the address may be 
omitted. 

1. Two books have long stood side by side in a store. One of them 
is at last sold, and writes a letter to the other. Imagine how a book 
would feel to be bought by a boy, or a beautiful young lady, or an old 
gentleman with a large library, and what experiences it might have 
to tell. 

2. Write what the book that was left might reply about missing its 
companion, about those that have visited the store, and about its pros- 
pects of being sold. 

3. A doll that has been neglected for a new and prettier one writes 
a letter to its little mistress. 

4. A little bird that has been left in charge of a friend while its 
mistress is absent, writes to its mistress a letter. 

5: Write the message of an overworked stage-horse to the Society 
for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. 

6. What would a robin say to the boy who killed its mate and 
robbed its nest ? 



CHAPTER VIII. 

NARRATIVE-WRITING. 

I. NARRATIVES OE PERSONAL EXPERIENCE. 

[To the Teacher. The subject-matter of conversation and writing is for 
the most part personal experience or personal observation. We talk much 
about what we have done, seen, heard, or felt, adding possibly an opinion, a 
sentiment, or an inference. 

The making of an orderly statement or record of events is narration or 
narrative-writing. As an element of letter-writing it is itself the easiest and 
most common form of original composition. 

In the following exercises subjects are assigned, and some suggestions about 
method and arrangement are given; but in the choice of language children 
are thrown upon their own resources, personal experience furnishing them 
with ideas. 

It is imperative, however, that the ideas to be expressed be clear and defi- 
nite ; and if, for want of training, none but the most recent impressions are 
distinct enough to be recorded, the best results are likely to be got from Ex- 
ercise 37, which provides for noting the course of an event with the view to 
reporting it afterwards. Accessible to every school there are places of his- 
toric importance, public buildings, mills, and so on, to which a class may be 
sent in groups of two or three to get material for a written narrative of the 
visit made. They may use note-books, ask questions freely, get much useful 
information, and form habits of observation that will awaken an interest in 
many new subjects. The narrative will be worked up from an outline, and 
will of course contain some descriptive writing. 

Copies should be made until one is obtained that represents the best effort 
of the writer.] 

EXERCISE 30. 

Read this outline and try to recall the last picnic you attended. 
Then tell about it in the form of a story with the parts of it arranged 
as follows : — 

1. Time and place. 2. Who were to go. 3. Preparation. 4. Set- 
ting out; on foot, or how; what happened on the way; arrival. 
5. The grounds ; location, size, shade, water, furnishings. 6. Amuse- 



NARRATIVE-WRITING. 59 

ments before dinner. 7. The dinner; when, where, what. 8. After- 
dinner sports; mishaps, etc. 9. The return; time, incidents. 10. 
Feelings on reviewing the day. 

69. If the complete story of our lives could be written, 
it would tell all that we had ever done, and describe 
whatever we had seen ; it would also give an account 
of what had happened to us, and of the events with which 
we had been connected. 

70. An orderly and connected account of what has 
sometime taken place may be called a Narrative. 

EXERCISE 31. 

Narrate your experience with some pet animal, — a dog, a cat, 
a horse, a bird, or rabbits, etc. Observe this order, and make a con- 
nected whole : — 

1. What pet; kind or breed, name. 2. Size, color, age, value. 
3. How and when obtained. 4. When or where kept. 5. Food ; 
what, how often, by whom. 6. Habits, day and night. 7. Friends 
and enemies, or likes and dislikes. 8. Intelligence ; tricks, anecdotes. 
9. What became of it, how much affection you have for it, or why it 
was worth petting. 

EXERCISE 32. 

Observe carefully the events of a day or half-day in your school, 
making notes of what happens if need be. Next day narrate these 
events in the form of a letter to your uncle or aunt, following the 
order in which they occurred. 

Say most about what is most important, but omit nothing that is 
needed to make the account complete. Try to make it clear and 
interesting. 

Mail this letter if your teacher approves and thinks it is well 
enough written. 

71. Directions. In writing a narrative of any kind, — 
1. Do not begin a sentence until you have thought it 

through and know just how it is to end. 



60 NARRATIVE-WRITING. 

2. Keep the order in which the events occurred, unless 
you have a good reason for following some other method. 

3. Mention every point that is needed to give the 
reader a clear idea of what happened. 

4. Say most about what is most important or interest- 
ing, and omit useless details. 

5. Make the narrative a connected whole, but do not 
string sentences together with " ands." 

6. Write naturally, as you would talk, and use no words 
whose meaning you do not know. 

7. Punctuate carefully as you write. 

EXERCISE 33. 

Tell how you spent your last pleasant holiday. The following out- 
line may help you. 

1. Your subject. 2. Pleasant expectations; what preparation 
made; what hoped for. 3. The night before. 4. The morning; first 
occupation ; plans for the day ; company. 5. The afternoon ; where ; 
with whom. 6. The dinner. 7. The evening ; all details. 8. Feel- 
ings; surprises; disappointments; enjoyment. 

EXERCISE 34. 

Observe carefully the order of services at church on some Sun- 
day, and write an account of them. If this outline is helpful, use it. 

What church ; where ; when. With whom, and in what part. The 
preacher and the singers. The beginning ; the music. Then the rest 
in order : the Scripture read ; the first lines of the hymns ; the text 
and subject of the sermon ; the close ; and the impression made upon 
you. 

EXERCISE 35. 

Each of the following may be the subject of a narrative about your 
personal experiences. Begin by making an outline similar to those 
provided in previous exercises. 



EXERCISES. 



61 



The Fourth of July. 
Thanksgiving Day. 
Christmas. 

A Saturday Afternoon. 
A Day in the Country. 
A Day in the City. 
An Evening at the Fair. 
An Afternoon in the Park. 
A Visit to the Museum. 
A Shopping Expedition. 
My Sail clown the River. 
How I helped on the Farm. 
A Great Fire. 



An Afternoon at the Circus. 

My Visit to a Menagerie. 

Having my Picture taken. 

A Day at the Seaside. 

An Hour in Sunday-school. 

My New Skates. 

The Surprise Party. 

A Base-ball Match. 

The Toboggan Slide. 

A Candy-pull. 

A Day in the Kitchen. 

The Boat-race. 

A Rainy Day. 



EXERCISE 36. 

Write a full account of some journey you have made. 



EXERCISE 37. 

Under the direction of your teacher, 1 visit with a companion some 
one of the following in the neighborhood of your school. Then make 
an outline, and write an account of your visit. 



A Cotton Mill. 
A Shoe Factory. 
The Foundry. 
The Watch Factory. 
A Grist Mill. 
The Art Museum. 
The Custom House. 
The Salt Works. 
A Coal Mine. 
A Machine Shop. 
A Box Factory. 
A Bookbinder's. 
The State House. 
The Legislature. 



The Mint. 

The Public Library. 

The Poor House. 

The County Jail. 

The Telephone Exchange. 

The Gas House. 

The Ship Yard. 

The Pottery. 

The Water W'orks. 

The Pumping Station. 

The Old Mill. 

The Natural History Rooms. 

The Navy Yard. 

A Newspaper Press Room. 



1 See note to teachers, page 5S. 



62 NARRATIVE-WRITING. 



The City Hall. 
A Cemetery. 
The Old Fort. 
The Lighthouse. 
A Piano Factory. 
The Rubber Works. 
The Rolling Mills. 



The Falls. 

The Court House. 

The College Buildings. 

The Brick Yard. 

The Arsenal. 

The Quarries. 

A Woodland Road. 



II. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 

[To the Teacher. Narratives of this kind must often be made up of facts 
learned at second-hand from the statements of other persons or from books, 
and the danger is that the sketch may be a mere copy. This danger will be 
avoided if the subject be not assigned for writing until it has become familiar 
by reading and note-taking, and by discussion in a conversation lesson in which 
all take part.] 

EXERCISE 38. 

1. What is a biography ? 

2. Write a biography of your father. 

3. What is an autobiography ? Write one, using r these sug- 
gestions: — 

Your name — birthplace and date — names and occupation of 
parents — places of residence — schools attended — different studies 

— out-of-school lessons, such as music or dancing — other occupa- 
tion or pursuits — habits of rising — work to do — fondness for 
work — sports — books read — kind of reading preferred — friends 

— plans for future education — for business — object in life — natu- 
ral disposition — is it best to be noble or rich or good or wise. 

72. In collecting materials this may serve as an 

Outline for a Biographical Sketch. 

I. Introduction. Name, and how best known. 

II. Birth. Time, place, and — generally — ancestry. 

III. Childhood and Youth. Education; preparation and training 
for life-work ; early pursuits, habits, disposition. 



BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 63 

IV. Chief Events of Life, public and private, in their order. 

V. Death. Time, place, circumstances. 

VI. Characteristics. Personal appearance and bearing; mental 
and moral qualities ; likes and dislikes, ability and culture. 

VII. Results of Life. Development of self ; example to others ; ser- 
vice to individuals, to the country, to the world. 

73. Outline and notes for a sketch of the life of 
Abraham Lincoln. 

I. Introduction. Sixteenth Pres. of U. S. during Civil War. Savior 
of country. 

II. Birth. Ky., Feb. 12, 1809. Ancestors from England with Wm. 
Penn. Father could neither read nor write. Mother a remarkable 
woman. 

III. Childhood and Youth. Had but a few months' schooling. 
Toiled all day on farm, read by light of log-fire at night. The Bible, 
Pilgrim's Progress, jEsop's Fables his favorites. Borrowed law-books 
at night to study, returned them in the morning. 

IV. The Chief Events of Life. In 1816 his father moved to 
Indiana. At 11, he met a great loss in death of mother. At 19, on a 
flatboat to New Orleans. At 21, moved to Illinois, helped build log- 
cabin, split 3000 rails for fence. Then successively clerk, captain in 
Black Hawk war, bookkeeper, postmaster, surveyor, and lawyer. At 
25, in Legislature. Home in Springfield. Married in 1842. In Con- 
gress, 1846. Candidate for U. S. Senator in 1858. Defeated. Presi- 
dent, 1861 till death. Condition of country and conduct of war a 
great anxiety and responsibility. Emancipated slaves, 1863. 

V. Death. Assassinated April 14, 1865. Mourned at home and 
abroad. 

VI. Characteristics. Tall, awkward, ungainly. Common sense, 
honesty, fidelity, kindness, patriotism. " Plain man of the people." 
One of the great men of history. 

VII. Results of Life. Wise conduct of great war. Saved the 
Union. Freed the slaves. Remembered with affection and gratitude. 
Next to Washington. 



64 NARRATIVE-WRITING. 

EXERCISE 39. 
Make a study of the Life of Lincoln as you find it given in books, 
and then write a biographical sketch. Use the preceding notes, and 
follow the directions given in § 71. 

EXERCISE 40. 
Prepare notes according to the plan given, and write sketches 
of one or more of these 

Statesmen and Inventors. 

George Washington. 



Robert Fulton. 
Eli Whitney. 
James Watt. 
George Stephenson. 
S. F. B. Morse. 
Charles Goodyear. 
Richard Arkwright. 
Thomas A. Edison. 



Benjamin Franklin. 
Alexander Hamilton. 
Thomas Jefferson. 
Andrew Jackson. 
Daniel Webster. 
Henry Clay. 
Ulysses S. Grant. 

EXERCISE 41. 

Write a sketch of the Life of Longfellow, using any facts that you 
can remember from your reading. Those suggested here will not be 
enough. 

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the best beloved of American poets 
— Feb. 27, 1807, Portland, Me.— Bowdoin College at 14, graduated 
at 18 — chosen Professor of Modern Languages at Harvard at 28 — his 
home, a house occupied by Washington in 1775-76. — Charles Kingsley 
said of his face that it was the most beautiful he had ever seen. — 
Poems noted for sweetness and purity — His courteous, pure, beauti- 
ful life the best poem of all — Died March 24, 1882 — The inheritance 

of his writings. 

EXERCISE 42. 

Prepare outline notes as in § 73, and write a sketch of the life 

of one or more of these 

Authors. 



William Shakespeare. 
Sir Walter Scott. 
Washington Irving. 
William Cullen Bryant. 



Ralph Waldo Emerson. 
James Russell Lowell. 
John Greenleaf Whittier. 
Oliver Wendell Holmes. 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES, 



63 



EXERCISE 43. 

Study the life of Joan of Arc until you can write something more 
than is given in these notes. 

Born 1412 — daughter of a peasant — could spin and sew, not read 
nor write — strong, beautiful, poetic, fond of adventure, of great piety. 
At 16 understood cause of war between France and England — re- 
solved to deliver France. Friendless — poor — trained to horseback 
riding. Laughed at by the great — believed in by the common people. 
Persistent — approved by King — led many to battle — won victory. 
Accused of heresy — burned at stake. 



EXERCISE 44. 

After studying and comparing the lives of two persons prominent 
in history, make an outline and "write a sketch of each life. Then 
write a comparison of their likenesses and differences. You may 
select from the following : — 

Queen Elizabeth. 
Mary Queen of Scots. 
Victoria. 



Alfred the Great. 
Peter the Great. 



Sir Walter Raleigh. 
William E. Gladstone. 
George Peabody. 
Napoleon Bonaparte. 
David Livingstone. 



III. HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 

74. Historical events are incidents in the life of a 
people or nation. They are parts of the story of the life 
of mankind ; and the doings of the chief actors make np so 
large a part of history that a record of events is often little 
more than a sketch of the life of some prominent man. 

Thus, a biographical sketch of Columbus necessarily includes a 
narrative of the " Discovery of a New World," and to tell of the 
"Conquest of Mexico" is to sketch the life of its conqueror, Her- 
nando Cortez. 



66 NARRATIVE-WRITING. 

EXERCISE 45. 

. Prepare the outline and notes, and write a sketch of one of 

the following, so as to show the part he played in history. 

Hernando Cortez. 



Christopher Columbus. 
Ferdinand de Soto. 
Henry Hudson. 
William Penn. 



Francisco Pizarro. 
Benedict Arnold. 
Tecumseh. 



75. Generally something like the following will serve 
best as an 

Outline for a Historical Sketch. 

I. Introduction. The subject : why interesting or important. 

II. Cause or Purpose. What led to the event. 

III. Time and Place. 

IV. Principal Actors, and their relations to one another. 
V. Details, given in natural order. 

VI. Effect produced at the time. 

VII. Conclusion. Thoughts or reflections on the event as a whole. 
Influence on the nation's life or future history. 

(a) The writing of a good historical sketch, or, for that matter, of 
anything else, requires a clear knowledge of the subject, which must 
come from reading, study, and conversation. Note-taking is often 
helpful. 

76. Outline and notes for a sketch of 

Burgoyne's Invasion. 

I. Introduction. Important event of Kevolution. Its influence on 
the result. 

II. Object. Plan to divide the country. Clinton going north from 
New York City, Burgoyne going south to meet him. 

III. Time, Place. June-Oct., 1777. Canada; N.Y.; Vt. 

IV. Principal Actors. Burgoyne, St. Leger, Baum; Schuyler, 
Gates, Stark. Duty of each. 



HISTORICAL SKETCHES. 67 

V. Details. Route via Lake Champlain and the Hudson; 8000 
men; English; Hessians; Indian allies. Expedition of St. Leger to 
Ft. Schuyler via St, Lawrence and Oswego (Oriskany), and of Col. 
Baum to Bennington Both defeated. Capture of Fts. Ticonderoga, 
Crown Point, Edward. Two battles at Saratoga. Lost. Defeat ; no 
retreat ; no provisions Surrender of army, Oct. 17, 6000 men. 

VI. Effect. Americans encouraged. France acknowledged inde- 
pendence. 

VII. Conclusion. Victory timely, as it followed defeats. Greatest 
influence in ending the war, 

77. The length of a sketch of this kind will depend upon the time 
allotted and the number of details given. In the following sketch 
the notes have been expanded only enough to afford a reasonably clear 
understanding of the event. 8ut many sketches will be shorter. 

Btjrgoyne's Invasion. 

Burgoyne's Invasion was one of the most important military move- 
ments of the American Revolution. Its failure, and the capture of 
the invading army, had great influence in deciding the issue of the war. 

It was part of a plan formed in London by the British ministry to 
separate New England from the rest of the country. British forces 
under Gen. Clinton were to move up the Hudson and unite with the 
army of Burgoyne from the north. 

In June, 1777, Gen. Burgoyne set out from the northern end of 
Lake Champlain having with him eight thousand men, half of them 
Hessians, besides Indian allies. 

Forces under Col. St. Leger had previously been sent by way of 
the St. Lawrence and Oswego to capture Ft. Schuyler in central New 
York, and then join the main army. They were defeated, however, at 
the battle of Oriskany, and compelled to return. 

Burgoyne captured the forts on Lake Champlain, and Ft. Edward 
on the Hudson, and the attempts of the Americans under Gen. Schuy- 
ler to prevent his advance towards the south were ineffectual. But a 
detachment under Col. Baum, sent to Bennington, Vt., to take posses- 
sion of some military stores, was defeated and captured Aug. 12 by 
u Green Mountain Boys " under Gen. Stark. 

Burgoyne moved on and took position near Saratoga. Here he was 



68 



NARRATIVE-WRITING. 



defeated in two severe battles by the Americans under Gen. Gates, 
who had superseded Schuyler. Hemmed in now upon all sides, and 
without provisions, he saw no way of escape, and therefore surrendered 
his entire army, now numbering six thousand men, Oct. 17. Thus the 
expedition from which so much was expected resulted in disastrous 
failure ; but this result was in part due to the lack of Clinton's 
expected co-operation. 

This brilliant victoiy greatly elated and encouraged the Americans 
who had recently met severe reverses near Philadelphia. It also led 
France to acknowledge our independence and send us aid, and prob- 
ably did more than any other single event to bring the war to a suc- 
cessful close. 

EXERCISE 46. 



Prepare the outline and write 
subjects : — 

The Discovery of America. 
The Landing of the Pilgrims. 
King Philip's War. 
The Exile of the Acadians. 
The Battle of Quebec. 
The Boston Tea-party. 
Battle of Lexington. 
Battle of Bunker Hill. 
Declaration of Independence. 
Arnold's Treason. 



a historical sketch on one of these 

The Siege of Yorktown. 

Battle of Lake Erie. 

The Burning of the Capitol. 

The Firing on Sumter. 

Battle of Gettysburg. 

The Death of Lincoln . 

The Mexican War. 

The First Voyage of Columbus. 

An Incident of the Revolution. 

Our National Flag. 



EXERCISE 47. 

Write a little history of the State in which you live. Tell when 
it was settled, and for what purpose. The events of the first years. 
The wars and important changes. Its growth in population, com- 
merce, manufactures, etc. 

EXERCISE 48. 

Prepare an outline, and write a brief history of 

Your native town. I New Orleans. California. 

The city in which you live. Cuba. Florida. 

The city of Washington, j Chicago. Texas. 



CHAPTER IX. 

DESCRIPTIVE WRITING. 

[To the Teacher. Narration and description, though closely allied and 
in practice hard to separate, are yet easily distinguishable. The one deals 
with action, the other with repose. In the former, the verbs mark the move- 
ment; in the latter, adjectives draw a picture. Purely descriptive writing is 
much the more difficult for children, since if one is to describe an object accu- 
rately, he needs wider knowledge, closer observation, and a larger — often a 
technical — vocabulary; 

Practice, however, is a valuable teacher, and may lead children to observe 
closely, to study the relations of parts, to see likenesses and differences, and to 
choose exact expressions. But there is need to give instruction and guidance : 
merely to assign a complex object, and call for a description of it, would gen- 
erally waste time. At first, such an object, or some representation of it, ought 
to be seen, then studied and classified as to appearance, form, size, location, 
structure, parts, characteristics, habits, uses, history, value, etc. All these 
judgments should be arranged in logical order under suitable headings, that 
the description may be clear, and that habits of methodical treatment may be 
formed. 

The greatest gain will come not from hurrying over a number of exercises, 
but from carefully completing in the right way a single one that is adapted to 
its purpose.] 

78. In narratives about persons, we relate actions per- 
formed by them from time to time, and describe the cir- 
cumstances in which they were placed* A narrative, then, 
is made up of short or long descriptions of deeds, persons, 
places, and things; and it is in the writing of Descrip- 
tions that we are to have special practice now. 

EXERCISE 49. 

Use each word appropriately in describing some object as to size, 
weight, or height. Thus : — 

"An extensive plain; a towering cliff." 



70 



DESCRIPTIVE WRITING. 



large 


light 


gigantic 


wide 


puny 


tiny 


elevated 


capacious 


minute 


extensive 


thick 


microscopic 


vast 


dwarfed 


little 


shallow 


spacious 


monstrous 


delicate 


heavy 


boundless 


big- 


broad 


small 


deep 


roomy 


thin 


narrow 


immense 


slight 


great 


ponderous 


huge 


high 


lofty 


fine 


towering 


enormous 


ample 


massive 



EXERCISE 50. 

1. Make a list of the colors that resemble either light or dark red. 

yellow 

cherry 

lemon 

madder 

citrine 

stone 

scarlet 

buff 

sulphur 

2. Which of those you have selected are a trifle bluish or purplish f 

3. Arrange the rest in little groups of similar colors. 



cream 


salmon 


ruby 


russet 


emerald 


lavender 


purple 


tawny 


golden 


claret 


garnet 


maroon 


mauve 


orange 


amber 


green 


carmine 


wine 


vermilion 


saffron 


auburn 


brown 


drab 


olive 


pink 


gray 


slate 


neutral 


cochineal 


sandy 


chestnut 


rose 


magenta 


straw 


crimson 


cardinal 



EXERCISE 51. 
Explain the direction of lines that are — 



straight 


wavy 


vertical 


divergent 


perpendicular 


crooked 


spiral 


horizontal 


radiating 


serpentine 


curved 


slanting 


parallel 


convergent 


zigzag 


diagonal 


looped 


netted 


oblique 


intersecting 



EXERCISE 52. 
Explain the form of objects that are — 



triangular 
ribbed 



graceful 
circular 



plump 
flat 



bulky 
angular 



rounded 
solid 



EXERCISES. 



71 






square 


grooved 


cylindrical 


plane 


annular 


rectangular 


elliptical 


pitted 


serrated 


tapering 


oblong- 


oval 


conical 


corrugated 


slender 


spreading 


convex 


cubical 


arched 


lanceolate 


hexagonal 


aquiline 


prismatic 


wrinkled 


pointed 


octagonal 


concave 


pyramidal 


similar 


blunt 


chubby- 


spherical 


irregular 
EXERCISE 53 


gibbous 


stellated 


Find one o 


r more words that describe the form of — 




vases 


pipes 


pencils 


chimneys 


horns 


windows 


stars 


spokes 


pickets 


archways 


masts 


tumblers 


corkscrews 


roads 


leaves 


eggs 


eels 


trunks 


sheets 


rainbows 


coins 


needles 


tubes 


baskets 


saucers 


balls 


saws 


lawns 


barrels 


stones 



EXERCISE 54. 

Describe the following as to form, referring to Exercise 52 if you 
cannot think of the proper word. Thus : — 

" A tin cup " has a circular base, with a hollow, cylindrical body. On its side is 
a flat, curved handle. 



a broom 


a pin 


a table-knife 


a flute 


a hoe 


a slate 


a river 


a scythe 


a chair 


a bench 


a lead-pencil 


a spoon 


a bell 


a door 


a bottle 


a wheel 


a whip 


a boat 
EXERCISE 55 


a book-case 


a horn 



1. Use one or more of the words in the first list to describe each 
object named in the second list. Give the color when you can. 
Thus : — 

" Chalk " is white, opaque, porous, and brittle. 



Words that imply Qualities. 



transparent 
opaque 



lustrous 
friable 



translucent 
fluid 



indelible 
sticky 



jointed 
plastic 



72 



DESCRIPTIVE WRITING. 



porous 


volatile 


downy 


fleecy 


scaly 


viscid 


soluble 


granular 


slippery 


flexible 


crumbling 


buoyant 


imperishable 


brittle 


fibrous 


combustible 


elastic 


smooth 


mineral 


vegetable 


inflammable 


liquid 


rough 


tough 


gaseous 




Words 


THAT NAME OBJECTS. 




chalk 


rubber 


leather 


paper 


clay 


sponge 


molasses 


bread 


wood 


chocolate 


glass 


water 


mud 


cement 


milk 


iron 


ink 


cotton 


cloth 


steam 


glue 


flax 


rattan 


air 


powder 


paint 


gold 


ice 


coal 


oil 


sugar 


wax 


alcohol 


kerosene 


putty 


2. Explair 


l the meaning 


of each word 


in the first list 





EXERCISE 56. 

Mention substances that have the properties implied in 



tenacious 
absorbent 
adhesive 



poisonous 
nutritious 
stupefying 



reflecting 

nourishing 

sonorous 



ductile 
fusible 
malleable 



narcotic 

pliable 

purifying 



EXERCISE 57. 

1. Which words in Exercise 55 refer to qualities that can be distin- 
guished by the sense of touch ? 

2. Use one or more of the words in the Jirst list in describing each 
object named in the second list. 

Implying Qualities. 



sweet 


spicy 


odorous 


tart 


refreshing 


acid 


pungent 


sour 


insipid 


succulent 


bitter 


astringent 


rancid 


oily 


juicy 


salt 


savory 


aromatic 


tasteless 


crisp 


relishing 


fragrant 


luscious 


edible 


appetizing 


palatable 


delicious 


nutritious 


poisonous 


brackish 



EXERCISES. 



73 



Naming Objects. 



ginger 


alum 


onions 


water 


melons 


lemons 


butter 


coffee 


vinegar 


radishes 


cloves 


camphor 


mustard 


cologne 


nuts 


wine 


candy 


tea 


beef 


fruits 


celery 


beets 


gravy 


mint 


musk 


3. Which 


words in the first list refer to the smell f Which refer to 



neither taste nor smell? 

EXERCISE 58. 
Of what materials are the following made? — 



bottles 


chimneys 


roofs 


monuments 


dresses 


shoes 


pens 


erasers 


spikes 


ropes 


cloth 


spoons 


pitchers 


pipes 


images 


books 


cents 


tables 


pans 


mortar 


rings 


dimes 


fences 


tubes 


paste 


pencils 


ink 


buttons 


dice 


shot 



EXERCISE 59. 

1. Name the parts of objects mentioned in Exercises 53 and 54. 

2. Explain what part is indicated by each of these words : — 



top 


spire 


apex 


leaf 


interior v 


edge 


trunk 


cover 


knee 


corner 


slope 


vein 


margin 


crown 


calyx 


knob 


core 


walls 


base 


exterior 


branch 


crest 


twig- 


middle 


point 


root 


rim 


knuckle 


gable 


stalk 


bark 


arm 


summit 


petal 


heel 


ridge 


eaves 


handle 


shoulder 


end 


side 


stem 


centre 


pinnacle 


bottom 


3. Select a 


11 the words th 


at might be used in describing — a tree ; 


— a flower ; — 


-a house. 








EXERCISE 60 







Give some of the uses of the objects named in Exercise 55. W r hich 
are natural products ? Which artificial ? 



74 DESCRIPTIVE WRITING. 

GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 

79, A description should be so written as to produce a 
clear picture in the mind of the reader. 

Observe carefully these directions : — 

1. Learn all you can about what you are to describe : 
(a) By observation ; (6) By experiment ; (c) By reading 
and study ; (d) By inquiry. 

2. Do not try to write a description of an object unless 
you can see it or remember it distinctly. 

3. After having gathered the material for your descrip- 
tion, arrange it in order according to one of the plans or 
outlines given. 

4. Think every sentence carefully through before begin- 
ning to write it. Arrange what you say in separate para- 
graphs, according as it pertains to one or another branch 
of your subject. 

5. Use no word or expression of which the meaning or 
the application is not clear to you. 

6. Learn to select words that exactly describe the quality 
to which you wish to refer. Do not be too proud nor too 
lazy to use a dictionary. 

7. Avoid in all your language, whether spoken or writ- 
ten, every slang expression, — not only because slang is 
vulgar, but also because it is a great hindrance to the 
growth of one's vocabulary. 

8. Remember that you cannot become an easy and 
graceful writer or speaker without careful and constant 
practice, and do not be satisfied with the schoolroom 
exercises, if you have time to prepare additional papers 
to be shown to your teacher for criticism and correction. 



COMPARISON AND CONTRAST. 



75 



I. DEFINITION-MAKING. 



EXERCISE 61. 

Define each of these objects that you can see or remember clearly, 
giving a short description of it that will distinguish it from every- 
thing else. Follow this plan as far as it will apply, giving — 

1. Use. 2. Form. 3. Size. 4. Material. 5. Structure. 

Thus : — 

" What is a window? " This window is an opening in the wall of a dwelling-house 
for the admission of light and air. It is oblong in shape, and about six feet long by three 
feet wide. It is closed by two wooden sashes, each containing two panes of glass. The 
sashes are made to slide up and down, and they may be fastened by a catch attached to 
either sash. 



a door 


a brush 


a newspaper 


a railroad 


a chimney 


a table 


a hammer 


a wheelbarrow 


a bottle 


a scythe 


a saw 


a thermometer 


a pencil 


a star 


a saw-horse 


a buggy 


a pen 


a banjo 


a carpet 


a flower 


a boat 


a basket 


a guide-post 


a trunk 


a pitcher 


a hut 


a clock 


a safe 


a rake 


a boat 


a watch 


a nest 


a pail 


a stove 


a piano 


a barometer 


a tent 


a fence 


a bridge 


an engine 



II. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST. 

80. In describing an object it is often a help to com- 
pare or contrast it with something better known, — show- 
ing how the two agree or differ in appearance, structure, 
qualities, use, value, and so on. 



EXERCISE 62. 

Compare the following with respect to (a) Form, (b) Parts or 
Structure, (c) Use. 



76 



DESCRIPTIVE WRITING. 



1. A pin and a needle. 

2. A spoon and a fork. 

3. A shovel and a pickaxe. 

4. A chair and a bed. 

5. A pail and a box. 

6. A sled and a boat. 

7. A cottage and a palace. 



8. A fence and a wall. 

9. A watch and a clock. 

10. A leaf and a flower. 

11. A bolt and a lock. 

12. A pocket and a purse. 

13. A fireplace and a stove. 

14. A thermometer and a barom- 

eter. 



EXERCISE 63. 

Compare the following as to their (a) Appearance, (b) Qualities, 
(c) Use, (d) Value. 

1. Coal and wood. 

2. Gold and iron. 

3. Wheat and tobacco. 



4. Cinnamon and cork. 

5. Water and wine. 

6. Pine and mahogany. 



7. Butter and cheese. 

8. Cotton and wool. 

9. Leather and rubber 

10. Oil and milk. 

11. Silk and flax. 

12. Flour and honey. 



EXERCISE 64. 

Compare the following with respect to their (a) Size, (6) Parts, 
(c) Habits, (d) Value. 



1. Horse and cow. 

2. Hen and duck. 

3. Cat and dog. 

4. Horse and camel. 



5. Wolf and lamb. 

6. Fly and spider. 

7. Frog and turtle. 

8. Butterfly and humming-bird. 



EXERCISE 65. 

Compare the following, showing, in an orderly way, points of like- 
ness and of difference. 



1. Two of your classmates. 

2. Summer and winter. 

3. A church and a jail. 

4. A doctor and a clergyman. 

5. A farmer and a miner. 

6. Boys' sports and girls' sports. 



10 



7. Lawn-tennis and base-ball. 

8. City life and country life. 

9. Travel by stage, by steamboat, 

and by railroad. 
The advantages of wealth and 
of education. 



EXERCISES. 77 

III. GENERAL DESCRIPTIONS. 

EXERCISE 66. 

Write as if for a friend who is at a distance and has never visited 
you, a clear and vivid description of your schoolhouse and schoolroom. 

1. Describe the building: (a) its location; whether pleasant, con- 
venient, and so on. (b) Its surroundings; yard, trees, etc. (c) Its 
age, size, shape, material; architecture, whether plain or ornamental. 
(d) The entrances, stairways, corridors, arrangement of rooms, dress- 
ing-rooms, etc. 

2. Describe your room : (a) in what part of the building, (b) Size, 
shape ; doors, windows, (c) Furniture ; seats, number, arrangement. 
(d) AValls, blackboards, maps, ornaments, (e) Such improvements 
as you can suggest. 

EXERCISE 67. 
In the same general way describe — 



1. The church you attend. 

2. The house you live in. 

3. Your sitting-room. 

4. Your grandfather's home. 

5. A mill. 

6. The nearest railroad station. 

7. A blacksmith's shop. 



8. The largest public building in 

town. 

9. A railway car. 

10. A children's play-room. 

11. A farmer's kitchen. 

12. A country store. 

13. An old garret. 



EXERCISE 68. 

1. Describe your Desk at school. Tell its form, materials, and 
arrangement of parts. Compare it with the old-fashioned desk you 
have heard your father tell about. Why do you like or dislike it? 
imagine what people have sat there before you, and tell what some of 
them may be doing. Think how you will look back upon it in years 
to come. 

2. Describe an Old-fashioned Chair. 

EXERCISE 69. 

Take for your subject — 

1. My Garden. Tell its situation ; its form and size ; how enclosed ; 



78 DESCRIPTIVE WRITING. 

how the beds are arranged; what they contain ; just how you have 
managed it this year ; what you expect to gather or to raise ; what 
you can find in it to interest you if you will. 



2. What I see from my Piazza. 

3. What I see on my Way to School. 



4. The View from a Hill-top. 

5. An Hour in the Woods. 



IV. GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTIONS. 

81. The description of countries, cities, rivers, moun- 
tains, and of other natural or political divisions requires 
careful observation and inquiry as well as reading and 
study. The order in which such subjects may be treated 
is shown by the following 

Outlines. 
I. A City or Town. 

I. Situation. County and state, or the like ; on or in sight of 
what shore, river, lake, mountain, railroad, or important city, — giving 
distance and direction. 

II. Size. Area and population, compared with some other city or 
town. Variety of inhabitants. 

III. Streets and Roads : quality and direction. Principal means 
of approach and transportation. 

IV. Buildings and Public Works : number and character. 
Library, post-office, court-house, churches, school-houses, park, bridges, 
monuments, etc. If a place of note, — the reason. 

V. Leading Industry. Manufactures — what kind. Commerce 
— with what places. Agriculture — what products. 

VI. Surroundings. Character of the suburbs ; natural scenery ; 
places of historic interest. 

VII. History. Brief mention of specially interesting events, of 
remarkable growth and prosperity, or of disasters. 



GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTIONS, 



79 



II. A Country or State. 
I. Situation: in reference to the whole region ; to other states, etc. 
IT. Size. Area, or length and breadth, as shown by comparison. 
Population. 

III. Physical Features. The coast, surface, mountains, rivers, 
lakes. The climate and soil. 

IV. Products: (a) animal; (&) vegetable; (c) mineral. 

V. Cities and Towns — the more important. For what noted. 
VI. Trade and Manufactures. Imports, exports, and articles 
manufactured. 

VII. People: race, nationality; chief occupations ; character; edu- 
cation ; religion ; government. Other matters of interest. 



EXERCISE 70. 

Following the general plan given above, describe — 

1. The city or town in which you live. 

2. One or more of the twenty largest cities in the United States. 



3. One or more of the following : — 



London 

Berlin 

Liverpool 



Paris 

Birmingham 

Edinburgh 



Moscow 

Tokio 

Calcutta 



Rome 

Mexico 

Cairo 



Dublin 

Florence 

Vienna 



EXERCISE 71. 

After collecting the necessary information from either person t 
books, arrange it according to the preceding plan in — 

1. A description of your native state or country ; 

2. A description of one or more of the following : — 



England 


Scandinavia 


Spain 


Florida 


Holland!, 


New York 


Italy 


Chili 


Greece 


Mexico 


France 


Japan 


Russia 


Scotland 


Australia 


Brazil 


China 


Pennsylvania 


Ireland 


Java 


Palestine 


India 


Egypt 


Germany 


California 



80 DESCRIPTIVE WRITING. 



V. DESCRIPTION OF NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL 
PRODUCTS. 

82. Many Natural Products may be described with the 
help of such an outline as is here applied to — 

Iron. 1 

I. Introduction. The most useful and the most widely dis- 
tributed of metals. 

II. Appearance. A fibrous, dark-gray metal — found mixed with 
other minerals — very bright when polished. 

III. Place where found or made. Most common metal in every 
country. Most valuable mines in Pennsylvania, Great Britain, Sweden, 
Belgium. Of most value when near coal mines. Why? 

IV. Properties, etc. 

Heavy. Nearly eight times as heavy as water. 

Hard. Especially in form of steel and cast-iron. 

Brittle. Compare with glass and lead. 

Fusible. Melts when subjected to great heat. 

Malleable. May be beaten and rolled into sheets. 

Elastic. When made into steel, the most elastic of metals. 

Ductile. May be drawn into wire as fine as a hair. 
V. Method of obtaining or of making. Ore dug from mines — 
crushed — put in furnace and smelted — iron separated from slag 
— cooled in form of pig-iron, or run into moulds as cast-iron; if again 
heated and hammered, or rolled, it becomes wrought iron ; heated 
again by charcoal, and united with carbon, it becomes steel. 

VI. Uses. In all trades. Machinery, household utensils, ships, 
implements of war and husbandry, tools, bridges, building, cutlery, 
medicine, etc. 

EXERCISE 72. 

1. Expand the preceding notes in a description of Iron. 

2. Following an outline similar to the preceding, prepare a descrip- 
tion of one or more of these products : — 

1 To the Teacher. Exercises upon this and similar subjects should form the basis 
of several " Information Lessons." 



ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTS. 



81 



Gold 




Tin 




Marble 


Petroleum 


Peat 


Silver 




Brass 




Salt 


Pearls 


Mahogany 


Lead 




Nickel 




Slate 


Diamonds 


Caoutchouc 


Copper 




Coal 




Plumbago 


Sponge 


Cork 


83. 


Artificial 


Products or Manufactured Articles 



may be described after the following plan : 



I. Introduction. Well known in many ways, especially for its 
use in windows, when it began in the year 1180 to take the place of 
horn, mica, and oiled paper. 

II. Form or Qualities. Transparent, fusible, ductile, brittle, 
smooth. 

III. Parts or Materials. Sand, soda or potash, lime, and some 
oxides to give brilliancy or color. 

IV. Process of Manufacture. Materials thoroughly mixed into 
a yellowish flour, called frit, and melted twenty-four hours in large 
pots set into a furnace. Allowed to cool until about as thick as paste, 
then taken by workmen. 

Principal tool, the blowing-tube, an iron pipe five feet long, with 
wooden handle. Melted glass taken on end of tube, and blown into 
the required shape, or else rolled or moulded. Cut-glass ware ground 
and polished after blowing. 

V. Kinds. Common window-glass blown into form of hollow 
cylinder, then cut open and flattened. Plate glass made in plates, 
rolled, and polished. Flint glass made of finer materials, used for 
lenses. 

VI. Uses. For windows, bottles, w*ares of all kinds, optical instru- 
ments, ornaments, etc. 

VII. Conclusion — general remarks. Almost indispensable for 
many purposes ; in the telescope, nothing to take its place. 



EXERCISE 73. 

1. Write about Glass, using the foregoing outline and notes. 

2. After properly arranging what you can learn about one or more 
of the following subjects, write an interesting description. 



82 


DESCRIPTIVE WHITING. 




Thermometers 


Paper 


Cheese 


Pins 


Flour 


Cotton Cloth 


Leather 


Silk 


Alcohol 


Starch 


Gunpowder 


Needles 


Oil 


Carpets 


Vinegar 


Barometers 


Soap 


Gas 


A Book 


Honey 


A Wagon 


Bread 


Glue 


Buttons 


Candy 


A Bicycle 


Sugar 


A Ship 


Matches 


A Shoe 



VI. DESCRIPTION OF PROCESSES. 

84. To tell how an article is made, or how anything is 
done, requires a thorough knowledge of the process and 
considerable skill in expression. We must — ■ 

I. State the object of the process ; the difficulty, frequency of 
it, etc. 

II. Describe the material used ; the tools, utensils, and everything 
else required. 

III. Mention the persons engaged in the work. 

IV. Narrate the details of the operation from beginning to end, 
telling exactly what is done. 



EXERCISE 74. 

Take as a subject whichever of these processes you are familiar 
with, prepare an outline, and write a description of it. 



1. Setting a Table. 

2. Making a Bed. 

3. Harnessing a Horse. 

4. Making a Kite. 

5. Making an Apron. 

6. Getting Supper. 

7. Shoeing a Horse. 

8. Building a House. 

9. Making Traps. 
10. Making Bricks. 



11. Laying out a Base-ball Ground. 

12. The Manufacture of Pottery. 

13. Printing a Newspaper. 

14. Taking Care of Plants. 

15. How to Play my Favorite Game. 

16. How a Beaver Builds his House. 

17. The Care of a Canary. 

18. Laying out a Tennis-court. 

19. The Coining of a Silver Dollar. 

20. Making Cotton into Cloth. 



DESCRIPTION OF ANIMALS. 83 

VII. DESCRIPTION OF ANIMALS. 

EXERCISE 75. 

1. From what you already know about The Camel, write as good a 
description as you can without making an outline. 

2. Learn what you can about camels from books and persons, study 
the outline in § 85, and then follow it or add to it in rewriting your 
description. * 

85. In describing an animal we may follow an outline 
similar to that here applied to — 

The Camel. 

I. Introduction. The camel a large beast of burden ; famous 
as " The Ship of the Desert." 

II. Size, Shape, and Covering. Eight feet high ; much larger 
than a horse; ungainly; humps (one or two) on back; covered with 
rough, dark brown hair. 

III. Place where found : Arabia, Africa, Central Asia. 

IV. Parts. Head small, like a sheep's, no horns ; teeth unlike those 
of most herbivorous animals — more like a dog's, and suited to tearing 
off twigs and shrubs ; neck long, no mane ; body bulky ; legs long, 
slender; knees provided with a cushion ; feet broad, soft. 

V. Food: thorny shrubs, date leaves, beans. 
VI. Habits and Qualities. Chews the cud ; seldom needs water ; 
has great endurance ; patient, obedient, kneels for burden ; vicious 
toward its own kind. 

VII. Uses, (a) Beast of burden ; 300 pounds five or six miles an 
hour, (b) Its milk a favorite beverage, (c) Flesh salted for food. 
(d) Fat melted for butter, (e) Hair made into cloth. 

VIII. Conclusion. Indispensable in long journeys across deserts. 
Anecdotes, etc. 

EXERCISE 76. 
"Write a description of one or more of the following, making an 
outline of what is important to be said : — 



84 



DESCRIPTIVE WRITING. 



Elephant 


Crocodile 


Frog 


Raccoon 


Reindeer 


Lion 


Ostrich 


Spider 


Sheep 


Cod 


Bear 


Fox 


Bee 


Butterfly 


Salmon 


Wolf 


Whale 


Silkworm 


Horse 


Crow 


Beaver 


Eagle 


Tiger 


Cow 


Swallow 



VIII. DESCRIPTION OF PLANTS. 

EXERCISE 77. 
Select some plant, either wild or cultivated, of which you know the 
looks and habits very well, and try to describe it. Remember the 
stem, branches, leaves, flowers, and fruit ; the shape, size, and color of 
all the parts ; when it starts, when it blossoms, when it dies, etc. 

86. It is one thing to be acquainted with a plant, — to 
know how it grows, how it behaves, and how it differs 
from other plants in its. stem, its leaves, its flowers, and its 
fruits. This comes only by the study of plants themselves. 

It is quite another thing to Jcnoiv of what use a plant is 
to man, and what treatment it receives. 

87. A general description of a plant as producing 
something useful to man may follow this 

Outline. 
I. Use and Value for food, clothing, building material, etc. 
II. Place where found, and how discovered. Native or natu- 
ralized ; wild or cultivated. 

III. General Appearance: height, size, trunk, bark, branches, 
foliage, flowers, fruit. Method of propagating. 

IV. Part used. Method of gathering or collecting it, and of pre- 
paring it for its final use. 

EXERCISE 78. 
After reading and asking questions, or after a conversation-lesson 
in school, make an outline, and give a general description of the plant 
from which we get — 



DESCRIPTION OF PERSONS. 



85 



Flour 


Sugar 


Flax 


Rubber 


Mahogany 


Rice 


Cotton 


Tea 


Tobacco 


Oranges 


Corn 


Coffee 


Cork 


Cocoa 


Potatoes 


Figs 


Dates 


Almonds 


Bananas 


Peanuts 



IX. DESCRIPTION OF PERSONS? 

88. It is easy to recognize a person, to distinguish him 
in a crowd, and to learn his ways ; but it is hard to convey 
clearly to others the means of picturing to themselves one 
whom they have not seen, or of understanding his char- 
acter. We must do the best we can to describe truthfully 
the — 

I. Figure. Whether large, tall, stout, well-proportioned, or the 
opposite. 

II. Face. Features, complexion, age, hair, etc. 

III. Manners. Peculiarities of appearance, bearing, action, dress, 
and speech. 

IV. Characteristics. Disposition, habits, peculiar traits, mental 
power, source of reputation, etc. 

Example. Barnaby Rudge was a half-witted youth of three and 
twenty years ; rather spare, of a fair height and strong make. His 
hair, of which he had a great profusion, was red, and hung in disorder 
about his face and shoulders. His face was pale, his eyes glassy and 
protruding. His dress was green, clumsily trimmed here and there 
with gaudy lace. A pair of tawdry ruffles dangled at his wrists, while 
his throat was nearly bare. His hat was ornamented with a cluster of 
peacock's feathers, limp, broken, and trailing down his back. Girded 
to his side was the steel hilt of an old sword, without blade or scab- 
bard ; and a few knee ribbons completed his attire. He had a large 
raven, named Grip, which he carried at his back in a basket. 

Never was there a lighter-hearted husbandman, a creature more 
popular with young and old, a blither and more happy soul than 
Barnaby. — Charles Dickens. 



86 



DESCRIPTIVE WRITING. 



EXERCISE 79. 

1. As you read each of these words, tell whether it refers to form; 
appearance ; manners ; disposition ; physical characteristics ; mental or 
moral traits : or, explain to what sort of person each word applies. 



striking 


restless 


erect 






quick 


bold 


dreamy- 


precise 


nervous 




emphatic 


brave 


idle 


cowardly 


gifted 




amiable 


shiftless 


slight 


lazy 


vicious 




fickle 


enthusiastic 


capricious 


boisterous 


weak 




base 


sullen 


vacillating 


gloomy 


fussy 




wicked 


ingenuous 


extravagant 


kindly 


benevolent 


lawless 


righteous 


obstinate 


worthy 


persistent 




sincere 


headstrong 


discreet 


awkward 


graceful 




vindictive 


cheerful 


trusty 


merciful 


dignified 




honest 


impulsive 


envious 


frivolous 


jealous 




shrewd 


desperate 


contented 


malicious 


thoughtless 


talkative 


comical 


estimable 


perverse 


lenient 




fleshy 


morose 


energetic 


honorable 


sprightly 




passionate 


stout 


earnest 


vigorous 


sallow 




vain 


elegant 


saintly 


villanous 


patient 




timid 


cruel 


melancholy 


faithful 


witty 




dull 


heroic 


gentle 


upright 


irascible 




merry 


droll 


truthful 


pitiless 


indolent 




nimble 


keen 


courageous 


knavish 


rash 




accurate 


meek 


frugal 


peevish 


just 




humble 


ingenious 




EXERCISE 


80. 




Describe, after making 


an outline, 


3ne or more of the 


following : — 


1. Your father. 




9. 


An Indian. 




2. Your most intimate frier 


id. 


10. 


The most pecuh 


ar person you 


3. The family doctor. 






know. 




4. A baby. 




11. 


A clergyman. 




5. The oldest person you ev< 


>r saw. 


12. 


An Englishman. 




6. Yourself. 




13. 


A Chinaman. 




7. A tramp. 




14. 


An Italian. 




8. A farmer. 






15. 


T] 


le ideal boy or 


girl. 



CHAPTER X. 



CHOICE OF WORDS. 



A. WRONG WORDS. 

[To the Teacher. Only a few common improprieties of speech are no- 
ticed in the following pages. To break up the habit of using improper and 
ungrammatical forms requires constant effort on the part of both teacher and 
pupils. In the school-room no error in the use of language should go uncor- 
rected, and reasons for corrections should be given whenever the pupil can 
profit by them.] 



89. Incorrect For ms. 

ivords not in good use. 

Do not say — 

gents for gentlemen or men , 

pants for trousers ; 

ad for advertisement ; 

kids for gloves ; 

specs for spectacles ; 

thanks for thank you; 

them things, for those things ; 

to home for at home ; 

to once for at once ; 

nowheres for nowhere : 

yourn for yours ; 

I am done for I have done ; 



Avoid all improper forms and 



I ain't for I'm not; 
he ain't for he isn't ; 
they ain't for they're not ; 
hain't for haven't : 
says I for I say or said I ; 
just as lives for as lief; 
drownded for drowned ; 
attackted for attacked ; 
preventative for preventive ; 
unbeknown for unknown : 
Mowed, throwed, knowed, etc. ; for 
blew, threw, knew, etc. 



90. Unnecessary Words. Bo not use words that are 
not needed to express the thought clearly. 

For example : got implies action, and should not be used with have 
to show simple possession, as in — We have got ten fingers. 



88 CHOICE OF WOKDS. 



EXERCISE 81. 



1. Relieve the following sentences of all needless words or ex- 
pressions. 

1. I have not got any money left. 2. My friend got badly hurt 
yesterday. 3. A widow woman called to see you. 4. From whence 
came they ? 5. Smell of these flowers. 6. Taste of this fruit. 7. You 
had ought to read more. 8. I can never find no time. 9. You have 
stood up too long : sit down a while. 10. He has lost one half of his 
money. 11. Put the vase up on to the shelf. 12. From hence we infer 
his inability. 13. This fact is universally known by all. 14. Pay- 
ment must be made by the latter end of the month. 15. You hadn't 
ought to use any unnecessary words. 16. Where have you been to ? 
17. Had I have known it, I should have gone also. 18. Edward and 
James they both went. 19. A strait connects them together. 

2. Point out the superfluous words, and show why they are 
unnecessary. 

1. He is equally as anxious as you. 2. Cover the plants over. 3. I 
shall always distrust him whenever he speaks. 4. The journey will 
require three weeks' time. 5. Keep off of the grass. 6. This evidence 
is wonderful and surprising. 7. You cannot give to a more worthier 
object. 8. He may probably go, but he cannot possibly succeed. 
9. He was filled with unbounded admiration. 10. I shall first begin 
by showing the defects, and then afterwards I shall finish by showing 
the excellencies of the system. 11. He abhorred and detested the idea 
of being in debt. 12. The funeral obsequies were largely attended. 
13. I was just going to go. 14. He has got to go immediately. 
15. You do very well for a new beginner. 16. The fort was com- 
pletely surrounded on all sides by the enemy. 17. What you say is 
very true. 18. He must learn the rules and regulations. 19. Do you 
approve of my plan? 20. Your task is harder than you think for. 
21. Thank those who are co-workers together with you. 22. Were 
you present at the final completion of the work ? 

91. Many errors in the use of words come solely from 
ignorance of their meaning. Never use a word until you 
know what it means, and can use it properly. 



WORDS CONFOUNDED. 89 

92. Words confounded. Avoid the use of one word for 
another sometvhat like it inform or pronunciation. 
For example : do not use — 

Except, to leave out, for accept, to receive, to agree to: 

Affect, to act upon, to influence, for effect, to produce, to accomplish; . 

Love, to regard with affection, for like, to be pleased ivith, to enjoy ; 

Lay, reclined, for laid, placed [see § 466, Part II.] ; 

Sat, took a seat, for set, placed; 

Learn, to receive instruction, for teach, to give instruction. 

EXERCISE 82. 

Fill the blanks with the appropriate word selected from the pre- 
ceding list. 

1. Please my thanks for your kindness. 2. How was he 

by the news? 3. You cannot so wicked a purpose. 4. I 

good music. 5. Will you me to play chess? 6. Do 

you easily? 7. Have you ever up all night? 8. He 

it away in his safe. 9. He in bed until noon. 10. I 

my neighbors, but I do not them. 11. His troubles have 

his mind. 12. I cannot your invitation. 13. She has 

down to rest. 

EXERCISE 83. 

1. Learn from the dictionary the difference in the meanings 
of the following: — 

1. Complement, compliment; 2. contemptible, contemptuous; 
3. depose, dispose ; 4. practical, practicable ; 5. credibly, .credita- 
bly; 6. propose, purpose. 

2. Select appropriate words from the preceding list to fill the 
following blanks : — 

1. I to write a book about sea-shells. 2. I do not think 

that the plan rft is . 3. If I am informed, the king 

has been wrongfully . 4. He has a opinion of such persons. 

5. The engineer has no knowledge of his business. 6. Such 

actions are thoroughly • 7. Your work was very per- 
formed. 8. The captain has obtained the of his crew. 



90 CHOICE OF WORDS, 

EXERCISE 84. 

1. From the dictionary learn the difference in meaning be- 
tween the words in each of the following pairs : — 

1. Prescribe, proscribe; 2. proceed, precede; 3. precise, concise 
4. statue, statute ; 5. species, specie ; 6. respectively, respectfully 
7. expect, suspect; 8. convince, convict; 9. lightning, lightening 
10. fly, flee; 11. liniment, lineament; 12. ingenious, ingenuous. 

2. Use words from the Jirst three pairs to complete these 
sentences : — 

1. What did the physician ? 2. In what order did they 

to the temple? 3. She was very in her manners. 4. What 

you write must be . 5. The band the regiment. 

3. Use each of the remaining words in a sentence or phrase, to 
show that you can discriminate between them. 

EXERCISE 85. 

Tell the difference in the meanings of these words, and use 
each word in a sentence : — 

1. Missives, missiles; 2. emigrants, immigrants; 3. perjury, 
forgery ; 4. diseased, deceased ; 5. prospective, retrospective ; 6. lux- 
urious, luxuriant ; 7. equity, iniquity ; 8. retaliate, reciprocate ; 
9. principal, principle ; 10. rout, route. 

93. Common Errors in the Choice of Words. 

Above "f or more titan ; as in " I was gone above a week." 

Aggravate for irritate or provoke ; as in " The delay aggravated me." 

Aggravate means "make worse." 
Any for at all; as in "He cannot walk any." 
Apt for likely or liable ; as in " Where shall I be apt to find it ? " " You 

will be apt to stumble." 
At length for at last. " We have heard at length from our friends " 

means "we have had a long letter from them"; "We have 

heard at last " means " after long delay." 
Back for ago ; as in " This occurred sometime back." 



COMMON ERRORS. 91 

Bad for ill or sick; as in " He is very bad to-night." 

Balance for rest or remainder; as in "He spent the balance of his 

vacation in Europe." 
Between for among. We should say " between two things," but 

" among more than two." 
Both used with alike ; as in " They are both alike." 
Bound for determined ; as in " The prisoner was bound to be free. 
Can for may ; as in "Can I close the window?" which means "Am I 

able to close it ? " 
Consider for think or suppose; as in "I consider him honest." 
A Couple of for two ; as "A couple of men." 

Dangerous for in danger ; as in " My father is sick, but not dangerous." 
Die with for died of; as in " He died with consumption." 
Depot for station ; as in " The train is at the depot." 
Different than for different from; as in "Mine is different than yours." 
Dirt for earth or loam; as in " Cover it with dirt" 
Done for did ; as in " He done it quickly." We should say " He did 

it," or "He has done it." 
Don't for doesn't; as in "He don't talk correctly." 
Each other must be used in speaking of two, and one another in 

speaking of more than two ; as in " The twins loved each other." 

" The quartette were jealous of one another." 
Either and neither refer to one of two objects, any and none to one 

of more than two. We should say "None of the twelve"; 

"Either of the pair." 
Expect, guess, or reckon for suppose, presume, suspect, or think; as 

in " I expect he left town yesterday." " I guess he will go." 
Female for woman, males for men: as in "Apartments for females." 
Fewer refers to number, less to quantity. We should say, "It will 

require fewer days and less money. 
" Have been to the city " should be " have been in the city " or 

" went to the city." Be does not mean go. 
Healthy for icholesome ; as in "Milk is healthy for children." 
Hung for hanged. Pictures are hung, men are sometimes hanged. 
Hurry up for make haste. 
Lady for madam or woman ; as in " What will you have, lady ? " " She 

is a good lady." " They are salesladies." 
Lay for lie; as in "Lay down, Bruno ! " [See § 466, Part II.] 



92 CHOICE OF WORDS. 

Leave for let; as in "Leave it alone ! " 

Like for as; as in " He did it like I do it." " Speak like I do." 

Nicely for well; as in " How do you do? " " I'm nicely" 

Mad for vexed, provoked, or angry. 

Most for almost ; as in " He comes most every day." 

On to for upon ; as in " Get on to the table." 

Partially for partly ; as in " The work is partially done." 

Party f or person ; as in "Who was the party you met?" 

Plenty for plentiful; as in " Money is plenty" 

Posted or booked up for informed ; as in " He is thoroughly 

posted." " Book yourself up on that subject." 
Quantity refers to what is measured, number to what are counted. 

We should say " a quantity of beans, a number of lemons." 
Quite a must not be used for a considerable, a great, a large ; as in 

" Quite a number; quite a display." 
Raised for reared ; as in " I was raised in Vermont." 
Real for really or very ; as in "real pleasant, real cold." 
Some for somewhat; as in "He is some weaker to-day." 
Stop for stay; as in "I shall stop in Washington a month." 
Street. We should say " I live at number ten in Pine Street." " I 

met him in the street," not on it. 
These or those must not be used with sort or kind ; as in "those kind," 

" these sort." Say that or this. 
Transpire for occur or happen ; as in " The event transpired in 1776." 
Try for make ; as in " Try the experiment." 
Try and for try to ; as in " Try and lift this weight." 
Was must never be used with we, you, or they as subject; as in 

" Where was you." 

EXERCISE 86. 

Correct such sentences in the preceding section as are wrong. Try 
to explain why they are wrong. 

EXERCISE 87. 

Point out what you can correct or improve, and read each sen- 
tence as it should be. 

1. Chestnuts are very plenty this year. 2. The trains collided 



EXAGGERATIONS. 93 

together near the depot. 3. Quite a number were severely hurt. 
•1. Several have since died with their injuries. 5. I expect that the 
switchman was careless. 6. Mr. Dickens stopped at the Parker House, 
on School Street. 7. There are half a dozen histories, either one of 
which will give the desired information. 8. Their authors differ from 
each other on minor points. 9. The machine is partially done, but 
the inventor has been so busy trying experiments that he has not 
worked any this week. 10. Most any one can afford to pay a couple 
of dollars for a real fine copy like this. 11. The strife between the 
contestants was severe, for each one of the four was bound to win. 

12. Which do you consider more healthy, animal or vegetable food ? 

13. I have a very contemptible opinion of such practices. 

14. The wounded man is some better, but the doctor still con- 
siders him dangerous. 15. He has been to Albany every day for 
above a week. 16. There were less males than females in the audi- 
ence. 17. People who sell out at auction are apt to lose money. 
18. Where shall I be liable to find the author? 19. His injury is a bad 
one, and will prevent his working for the balance of the year. 20. The 
delay was very aggravating, but at length we reached our destination. 
21. Where was you when he done it? 22. Both the brothers look 
just alike. 23. Lots of people make bad errors in talking. 24. Are 
you posted on these sort of things ? 25. Won't you try and not make 
a noise? 26. We will call and see you to-morrow. 27. It is quite a 
ways to go. 28. I guess you have made less mistakes than I. 

94. Exaggerations. Discriminate carefully in the 
choice of descriptive words, avoiding all inappropriate or 
exaggerated or " slang " expressions. 

It is useless to try to describe all kinds of things by such words as 
"nice," "lovely," "awful," "splendid," or "perfectly immense": find 
some other adjective that will express your meaning exactly, and 
remember that it is no disgrace to speak good English everywhere. 

EXERCISE 88. 
1. Substitute for the italicized words suitable descriptive 
expressions. 

1. Nice weather: a nice picture; nice clothes; a nice man; a nice 



94 CHOICE OF WORDS. 

lecture ; a nice ride ; nice music ; a nice plan. 2. An awful pen ; awful 
good ; awfully pretty ; awfully dear ; awful slow. 3. Splendid pudding ; 
splendid entertainment ; a perfectly splendid sermon. 4. This sidewalk 
is just too lovely for anything. 5. The delay was disgusting. 6. AVhat 
a pretty steamship ! 7. Those shoes are an immense fit. 8.1 just 
adore caramels. 9. I hate long stories. 10. The coffee seems mighty 
weak. 11. What a horrid mistake ! A perfectly lovely salad. 

2. Use correctly in sentences : nice, awful, horrid, splendid, lovely, 
disgusting. 

95. Wrong Order of Words. Arrange the parts of a 
sentence so that it may convey as clearly as possible just the 
meaning intended. 

EXERCISE 89. 

Try to improve the arrangement of the words in the following 
expressions, and explain why changes are needed. 

1. For sale: soft men's hats, black ladies' gloves, and leggings for 
children with or without feet. 2. Lost : a large Spanish blue gentle- 
man's cloak. 3. To let : a good, airy room to a gentleman twelve feet 
square. 4. We came very near being killed more than once. 5. He 
bought a new pair of gloves. 6. Carpets and clothes beaten and 
washed. 7. All rivers are not so swift. 8. Solve the next example 
to the end but one. 9. I should like to visit you very much. 
10. They only lost ten dollars by the trade. 11. I only recite in the 
morning. 12. I heard all you said very distinctly. 13. The fruit 
was sent in a basket which I ate with great relish. 14. A child was 
run over by a wagon four years old. 15. A fine view was obtained 
from the upper story of Niagara Falls. 16. Mrs. James only has one 
child. 17. I understand what you say fully. 18. I have been trying 
to have my watch repaired every day this week. 19. I never expect 
to be any taller than I am now. 20. Try to always put adverbs in 
their proper place. 21. I brought a young canary to my wife from 
Cuba. 22. I was presented just before I went to bed w 7 ith a new 
umbrella. 

96. Double Meaning. Construct sentences so as to 
avoid all ambiguous statements. 



SYNONYMS, 95 



EXERCISE 90. 

Reconstruct each of these sentences so that it shall have only one 
meaning : — 

1. Ask how old Mrs. Jones is. 2. What I want is common sense. 

5. The judge told the lawyer that he was not an authority. 4 , I have not 
heard from one of my friends. 5. She has given me more than you. 

6. My friend's father died while he was in Europe. 7. I promised 
her mother that I would call upon her sister. 8. The wind seems to 
be blowing over the trees. 9. I had just met my partner, a ruined 
man. 10. He generally brings it hot winter nights. 11. We met 
the same horse tramping through the snow in our rubber boots. 



B. SYNONYMS. 



[To the Teacher. The term "synonymous" must be applied to words 
approximate in meaning. 

"The right word in the right place" is a long lesson to learn, but a child 
may hasten his progress by collecting words of similar or of opposite meaning 
in order to compare and contrast them : and when he has got a firmer hold on 
his vocabulary by working it over in this way, it can soon be enlarged by 
teaching him a group of words for notions that he has hitherto expressed by a 
single word. He will find that some words are often but not always inter- 
changeable ; and in many cases in which a real difference in meaning is com- 
monly overlooked and is rather difficult to state, he can be taught what is of 
most importance, namely, tofolloio the best usage in making his choice between 
two words. 

The following exercises are easily divided, and may be used to occupy spare 
minutes as well as for regular lessons.] 

97. We often find several words nearly alike in mean- 
ing, each one of which we must learn to use in its proper 
place. Such words are called Synonyms. Thus : — 

Ancient, old, aged, elderly, antiquated, are synonyms, for, in a 
general way, they have the same meaning ; but we say " ancient 
customs," "old trees," "aged or elderly persons," "antiquated 
fashions." 



96 



CHOICE OF WORDS. 



98. Synonyms are words that have the same or nearly the 
same meaning. 

EXERCISE 91. 

1. Separate the following words into five groups, each containing 
five synonyms. 

2. Use the words of each group in expressions that will illustrate 
their meaning. Thus : — 



" A plot to rob the bank"; " 


the arrangement of words"; "a scheme for raising 


money"; "a conspiracy to assassinate the king." 






plot 


misfortune 


grand 


bountiful 


reduce 


diminish 


scheme 


calamity 


superb 


free 


liberal 


decrease 


plan 


disaster 


magnificent 


splendid 


generous 


abate 


conspiracy 


catastrophe 


mishap 


gorgeous 


lavish 


lessen 


arrangement 



EXERCISE 92. 

1. Find at least one or two synonyms for each of these words : — 
Busy ; bold ; honest ; counterfeit ; obscure ; barren ; appease ; cheer- 
ful ; dead ; larceny ; defeat ; certain ; collect ; death ; frighten ; cen- 
sure; frank; famous; obstinate; spacious. 

2. Give one or two words that are opposite in meaning to each 
of the foregoing. 

EXERCISE 93. 

What words are opposite in meaning to those here italicized: — 

1. Surrender the fort. 2. Convict the prisoner. 3. Ability to sing. 
4. Abolish the custom. 5. Confirm the report. 6. Absurd request. 
7. Slothful student. 8. Acute pain. 9. Adequate reason. 10. Limited 
monarchy. 11. Insolvent debtor. 12. Vivacious companion. 13. Ir- 
relevant remarks. 14. Haughty mien. 15. Defenceless position. 
16. Equitable agreement. 17. Sagacious animals. 18. Veto the bill. 
19. Extraordinary occurrences. 20. Parsimonious person. 



EXERCISE 94. 

Read each phrase, substituting synonyms for the italicized words. 
1. Insipid fruit. 2. Gnarled oaks. 3. Relentless foes. 4. Chap- 



SYNONYMS. 97 

lets of flowers. 5. Sepulchres of kings. 6. Auspicious omens. 7. Debt- 
ors' assets. 8. Martial music. 9. Voluntary offering. 10. A glutton- 
ous fellow. 11. Waning power. 12. Obsequies of a ruler. 13. Im- 
prudent methods. 14. Infallible signs. 15. Indelible impressions. 
16. Merchants' liabilities. 17. Raleigh's explorations. 18. Frugal 
habits. 19. Brutal actions. 20. Benevolent feelings. 





EXERCISE 95. 


ie 


difference between — 




1. 


a lazy boy and 


an i(//e boy ; 


2. 


a large man and 


a greai man ; 


3. 


a large gift and 


a generous gift ; 


4. 


what one wants and 


what one needs ; 


5. 


he hopes. and 


he expects ; 


6. 


a trade . and 


an occupation ; 


7. 


what is fragrant and 


what is odorous; 


8. 


peeling fruit and 


paring fruit ; 


9. 


a street and 


a road; 


.0. 


an angry man and 


a marf man. 




EXERCISE 96. 



Study the words in each of the following pairs till you think that 
you understand the meaning of them. Then use each of the words 
so as to show that you can discriminate between them. 

1. That is healthful which gives health ; that is healthy which has 
health. 

2. To remember is to call to mind readily ; to recollect is 
to recall with effort. -We can sometimes recollect what we do not 
remember. 

3. Habit is the result of custom. What is customary soon grows 
to be habitual. 

4. A man's reputation depends on what he appears to be ; his char- 
acter is what he really is. 

5. Brave and courageous men do their duty even though suffering 
from fear or disapproval ; bold and reckless men neither fear nor 
care. 



98 



CHOICE OF WORDS. 



6. Crimes are offences against law ; sins are offences against the 
right. 

7. We convince a man by argument ; we persuade him by advice 
and entreaty. 

EXERCISE 97. 

Explain the difference in meaning between the words of each 
pair. Thus : — 

Do not say " I guess bo " if you know enough about the subject to say " I think so " 
or " \ presume, so " or " I suppose so." 

Mountains and clouds are high ; masts and trees are tall. 

1. high, tall; 4. silent, quiet; 

2. glance, look ; 5. economical, stingy ; 

3. tomb, grave ; 6. hear, understand ; 



7. pardon, forgive ; 

8. kill, murder; 

9. see, notice. 



-EXERCISE 98. 

Discriminate between the words in each pair, and use them in 

sentences. 



1. love, like ; 

2. export, transport 

3. follow, pursue ; 



4. bring, fetch ; 

5. bear, carry; 

6. discover, invent 



7. believe, think ; 

8. frugal, miserly ; 

9. education, learning. 



EXERCISE 99. 

In each of these groups, tell which words are most alike, and find 
two that you can discriminate between. 



1. Honorable, reverend, respected, 

venerable. 

2. Active, energetic, alert, busy, 

occupied. 

3. Benefit, correct, rectify, im- 

prove. 

4. Laud, praise, extol, natter. 



5. Companion, friend, acquaint- 

ance. 

6. Break, ruin, shatter, destroy. 

7. Business, occupation, trade, pro- 

fession, employment. 

8. Ordinary, common, mean, usual, 

cheap. 



EXERCISE 100. 

Make phrases in which each of the following words is correctly 
used. Explain the difference in meaning when you can. 



SYNONYMS. 99 

1. Mourn or sorrow, lament or bewail. 

2. Price, cost, value, expense. 

3. Path, road, route, course. 

4. Journey, tour, voyage, excursion, trip. 

5. Purchase, procure, obtain, acquire, win, inherit. 

6. Recall, deny, revoke, countermand, repeal. 



EXERCISE 101. 

Answer these questions in complete sentences, whether you use 
synonyms or not : — 

1. Why is food called nutritio us ? palatable? indigestible? 

2. Why is a man called mercenary ? magnanimous ? 

3. What is the difference between an art and a science ? 

4. Explain why an occurrence is called annual? semi-annual? 
biennial? triennial? centennial? bi-centennial ? 

5. What is a sedentary occupation ? a lucrative one ? 

6. What is official information ? an officious person ? 

7. Tell how a speech, a lecture, a sermon, an oration, and a eulogy 
differ from one another. 

8. What is it for one to be lenient ? diffident ? 

9. What is a loquacious man? a taciturn man? 

10. When is one's conduct exemplary? decorous? despicable? noble? 
immoral ? vicious ? 

EXERCISE 102. 

Using synonymous words or phrases, tell in sentences what 
it is — 

1. to acquiesce in a decision. 2. to rectify a mistake. 3. to assuage 
pain. 4. to alleviate suffering. 5. to cremate a body. 6. to supply 
aliment. 7. to amputate a limb. 8. to cauterize a wound. 9. to com- 
mute a sentence. 10. to prorogue a legislature. 



EXERCISE K)3. 
Answer these questions thus : — 

" A just decision is one that is fair to both parties." 
"Authentic reports are such as come from a reliable source." 



100 CHOICE OF WORDS, 

1. What is a — 

1. just decision? 2. salubrious climate? 3. man of veracity? 
4. veracious statement? 5. voracious animal? 6. majority of five? 
7. minority of three? 8. ambiguous remark? 9. mortal wound ? 10. plu- 
rality of seven ? 

2. What are — 

1. sanguinary battles ? 2. pugnacious people? 3. contemporaneous 
events? 4. tyrannical- rulers? 5. arbitrary rules? 6. maritime coun- 
tries? 7 '. hospitable persons ? 8. authentic reports? 9. junior partners? 

10. candid views ? 

EXERCISE 104. 
Explain clearly what it is to — 

1. mortgage a farm. 2. deed the land. 3. resign an office. 4. counsel 
delay. 5. execute the laws. 6. commute a sentence. 7. read respon- 
sively. 8. ask for clemency. 9. go with alacrity. 10. excavate a cellar. 

11. fumigate a house. 12. embezzle money. 13. prove inefficient. 
14. /eigw sickness. 15. retract a statement. 16. foreclose a mortgage. 
17. endorse a note. 18. condone a crime. 19. acquit a prisoner. 
20. exterminate a tribe. 



EXERCISE 105. 

Substitute single words for the italicized expressions. 

1. I went of my own accord. 2. Old soldiers. 3. It can be done 
without difficulty. 4. Go to that place \ without a moment's delay. 5. Men 
of wisdom interpret the laws. of nature. 6. A man without money and 
without friends. 7. The statement cannot be denied. 8. My labors are 
of no utility. 9. Were the proceedings according to law ? 10. We 
were wet to the skin. 11. A man worthy of esteem. 12. Facts not to be 
disputed. 13. A river that cannot be forded. 14. An attack that could 
not be resisted. 15. He saw several mummies that were found in 
Egypt. 16. With a rapidity that cannot be conceived. 17. She was 
the one who inherited her uncle's wealth. 18. We awoke as soon as the 
sun rose. 19. What ought I to do ? 20. After the sun had gone down, 
we resumed the journey that to some of us seemed without end. 



VARIETY OF EXPRESSION, 101 



EXERCISE 106. 

Substitute words or expressions as synonyms for the italicized 
words. 

1. Prepare your lessons. 2. Honor your parents. 3. The thief was 
caught. 4. He spoke excitedly. 5. Peacefully slept the weary children. 
6. A furious gale was raging. 7. A few dilapidated old buildings still 
stand in the deserted hamlet. 8. We urged his going. 9. The Nile 
overflows once a year. 10. Much fatigued we reached the end of our 
journey. 11. Farming is a pleasant occupation. 12. There is no cause 
sacred enough to justify a violation of the truth. 13. We resolved to 
make the attempt in spite of all difficulties. 14. The prisoners were 
condemned and executed. 

EXERCISE 107. 

Substitute sentences of equivalent meaning. 

1. The opposing forces stood in 5atf/e array. 2. The supply con- 
stantly increases. 3. Plants are the habitations of insects. 4. They 
traversed the /o/ty mountains that surround this beautiful region. 

5. The majority of mankind earn their livelihood hy hard work. 6. The' 
army was animated by the spirit of its leader. 7. Sailors encounter 
constant perils. 8. The intelligence was brought by a courier. 9. Our 
liberties were not secured without a struggle. 

EXERCISE 108. 

Substitute simpler or more appropriate expressions for those that 
are italicized. 

1. He resides in an elegant mansion. 2. The barn was consumed by 
the devouring element. 3. We attended divine services. 4. He teas cut 
down by the scythe of Time. 5. She was ushered into existence in Maine. 

6. The streams are bound by ic inter's icy chain. 7. The ice broke, and 
the boy w T as launched into eternity. 8. We w 7 ere conveyed to the dearest 
spot on earth in an express wagon. 9. Crowds congregated to witness 
the race. 10. Divest yourself of your outer habiliments, and stay with 
us. 11. There were some gorgeously apparelled members of the gentler 
sex present. 12. Immediately upon our establishment in the hostelry we 
partook of a sumptuous repast. 



CHAPTER XI. 

PARAPHRASING. 

99. We have learned that there are right ways and 
wrong ways of saying what we mean, but we know that 
in telling a story no two persons would use precisely the 
same words and expressions, though the language of both 
might be excellent. 

Almost any idea can be well expressed in various ways. 
Thus : — 

(1) My gown is golden yellow. 

(2) In color my gown resembles 

gold. 
So instead of (1) " It is a dark day," we may write 



(3) My dress is as yellow as gold. 

(4) My dress is of a golden hue. 



(2) The sky is overcast. 

(3) A vast cloud obscures the sun. 

(4) What gloomy weather ! 



(5) There isn't a ray of sunshine. 

(6) A dark day this. 

(7) Isn't this a cheerless day? 



EXERCISE 109. 

Change the following sentences in as many ways as you can, trying 
to express the thought fully and accurately in different language. 
Thus: — 

" He speaks the truth." Hetells no lies. He is truthful. He is a man of his word. 

1. He speaks the truth. 2. He is patriotic. 3. He is faithful. 
4. This book interests me. 5. Do I trouble you? 6. He neglects 
his business. 7. It is not needed. 8. The thief does not fear pun- 
ishment. 9. These birds migrate. 10. The earth was first circum- 
navigated by one of Magellan's ships. 11. My impression differs from 
yours. 12. Do not squander your time. 13. Never put off till to- 



VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 103 

morrow what ought to be done to-day. 14. Our doubts were pres- 
ently dispelled. 15. Robert Fulton, who invented the steamboat, 
died prematurely from poverty and toil. 10. No man is entirely free 
from foibles. 17. " Take Time by the forelock ; he is bald behind." 

100. When we thoroughly change the form in which a 
thought has been expressed, without much changing the 
meaning, we make a Paraphrase. 

101. Practice in paraphrasing should enable us to vary 
our forms of expression, to speak with greater precision, 
to choose the best form of all, and to extend our knowl- 
edge of words and of their meanings. 

EXERCISE 110. 

1. Write each sentence five times, varying the order of words. 

1. Prepare, my friends, in time of peace for war. 

2. Soon a rocky mass mixed with snow came rattling down. 

3. Nobody but you, I think, was here after the war. 

4. " Your hand," cried the girl suddenly, as her foot slipped. 

2. Change and condense into four sentences, — then into three: 
(1) I was in a swamp. The year was 1875. It was May. I was 

lost. (2) The water was deep. It was cold. Dead trees filled it. 
My clothes were torn. Brambles caused it. (3) I wandered long. 
Then the ground was drier. The light increased. I was out. 

Transformation of Poetry into Prose. 

102. One may acquire skill in the use of language by 
trying to turn poetry into prose. 

Poetry is noticeably different from prose ; for, — 
(1) It has meter and rhythm 1 and rhymes ; 

1 To the Teacher. The meaning of rhythm, or the division of verse into lines, couplets, 
stanzas, etc., and that of meter, or the regular arrangement of accented and unaccented 
syllables, should he clearly exemplified to the class at the outset. 



104 PARAPHRASING. 

(2) The order of the words is often inverted ; 

(3) Many of its words and phrases are not used in prose ; 

(4) It often contains many figurative expressions and 
peculiar constructions. 

103. In changing poetry to prose, we are not to change 
the meaning : we are rather to express the ideas, as well 
as we can, in the simple, straightforward language of prose 
or of conversation. 

To do this, we must generally, — 

(1) Change the order of the words. Thus : — 

"Bent is his head with age, and red his tearful eye," becomes, — 
His head is bent with age, and his eyes are red with weeping. 

(2) Substitute prosaic for poetic words. As — 

Often for oft, evening for eve, against for 'gainst, etc. 

(3) Conceal the rhymes and the meter or measured step 
of the words, either by re-arrangement or by the use of 
synonyms. Thus : — 

"A man he was to all the country dear, 
And passing rich with forty pounds a year," becomes, — 

He was a man whom everybody loved, and his annual income of 
forty pounds made him surpassingly rich. 

(4) Sometimes we must/orw new sentences with changes 
in punctuation. 

EXERCISE III. 

Make the order of words in the following selections the same that 
it would be in prose, and conceal all the rhymes: — 

1. " Few and short were the prayers they said." 

2. " There purple grows the primrose pale." 

3. " The highest meed of praise he well deserves." 



TRANSFORMATION OF POETRY INTO PROSE. 105 

4. " From labor health, from health contentment springs." 

5. " ' I've lost a day,' — the prince who nobly cried, 
. Had been an emperor without his crown." 

6. " That mercy I to others show, 

That mercy show to me." 

7. "Of joys departed 

Not to return, how painful the remembrance." 

8. " Vessels large may venture more, 

But little boats should keep near shore." 

9. " By fairy hands their knell is rung ; 

By forms unseen their dirge is sung." 

10. " Stone walls do not a prison make, 

Nor iron bars a cage." 

11. " For 'tis a truth well known to most, 

That whatsoever thing is lost, 
We seek it, ere it comes to light, 
In every cranny but the right." 

EXERCISE 112. 

Transform the following selections so as to make them sound like 
ordinary prose : — 

1. " He is not poor that little hath, but he that much desires." 

2. " Of all wit's uses the main one 

Is to live well with who has none." 

3. " What you keep by you, you may change and mend, 

But words once spoke can never be recalled." 

4. " Bear through sorrow, wrong, and ruth, 

In thy heart the dew of youth, 
On thy lips the smile of truth." 

5. " Sweet is the pleasure itself cannot spoil ! 

Is not true leisure one with true toil ? " 

6. " Three poets in three distant ages born, 

Greece, Italy, and England did adorn : 

The first in gracefulness of thought surpassed ; 

The next in majesty ; in both, the last." 



106 PARAPHRASING. 

EXERCISE 113. 
Transform the following into prose : try to conceal the meter. 

1. " I watch the mowers as they go 

Through the tall grass, a white-sleeved row ; 
With even stroke their scythes they swing, 
In tune their merry whetstones ring." 

2. " In the country, on every side, 

Where far and wide, 

Like a leopard's tawny and spotted hide, 

Stretches the plain, 

To the dry grass and the drier grain 

How welcome is the rain ! " 

3. " I saw a farmer plow his land, who never came to sow ; 

I saw a student filled with truth, to practice never go ; 
In land or mind I never saw the ripened harvest grow." 

4. " Do thou thy work ; it shall succeed 

In thine or in another's day ; 
And if denied the victor's meed, 

Thou shalt not miss the toiler's pay." 

EXERCISE 114. 
Paraphrase the following selections : — 

1. " Let us then be up and doing, with a heart for any fate." 

2. " To swear is neither brave, polite, nor wise." 

3. " A thing of beauty is a joy forever." 

4. " How blessings brighten as they take their flight." 

5. " Into each life some rain must fall." 

6. " Never make your ear the grave of another's good name." 

7. " Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and a few 
are to be chewed and digested." 

8. " The rank is but the guinea's stamp, 

The man's the gold for all that ! " 

9. " The bravest trophy ever man obtained 

Is that which o'er himself is gained." 
10. " If little labor, little are our gains ; 

Man's fortunes are according to his pains." 



TRANSFORMATION OF POETRY INTO PROSE. 107 



EXERCISE 115. 
Transform the following selections into prose : — 

1. " I Martius am ! Once first, and now the third ! 

To lead the Year was my appointed place ; 
A mortal dispossessed me by a word, 

And set there Janus with the double face. 
Hence I make war on all the human race." 

2. " With deep affection 

And recollection 
I often think of those Shandon bells, 

Whose sounds so wild would 

In days of childhood 
Fling round my cradle their magic spells. 11 

3. " Spake full well in language quaint and olden 

One who dwelleth by the castled Rhine, 
When he called the flowers so blue and golden 
Stars that in earths firmament do shine." 

4. " Here hath been dawning another blue day, 

Think, wilt thou let it slip useless away ? 

Out of eternity this new day was born ; 

Into eternity at night must return. 

See it aforetime no eye ever did ; 

So soon it again from all must be hid. 

Lo, here hath been dawning another blue day, 

Think, wilt thou let it slip useless away ? " 

5. " O for boyhood's time of June, 

Crowding years in one brief moon, 
When all things I heard or saw, 
Me, their master, waited for. 
I was rich in flowers and trees, 
Humming-birds and honey-bees ; 
For my sport the squirrel played, 
Plied the snouted mole his spade ; 
For my taste the blackberry cone 
Purpled over hedge and stone." 



108 PARAPHRASING, 



EXERCISE 116. 



Paraphrase the following proverbs. You will have to make longer 
sentences. 

1. Handsome is that handsome does. 2. Procrastination is the 
thief of time. 3. A stitch in time saves nine. 4. Nothing venture, 
nothing have. 5. Constant dropping wears away the hardest stone. 
6. Where there is a will, there is a way. 7. Time is money. 8. A 
penny saved is a penny earned. 

9. Haste makes waste. 10. Honesty is the best policy. 11. Actions 
speak louder than words. 12. Birds of a feather flock together. 
13. An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. 14. Hunger is 
the best sauce. 15. Empty your purse into your head, and no man 
can take it from you. 16. There is always room at the top. 



EXERCISE 117. 
Transform the following selections into prose : — 

1. " He that holds fast the golden mean, 

And lives contentedly between 

The little and the great, 
Feels not the wants that pinch the poor, 
Nor plagues that haunt the rich man's door." 

2. " Tweed's echoes heard the ceaseless plash, 

While many a broken band, 
Disordered, through her currents dash, 

To gain the Scottish land : 
To town and tower, to down and dale, 
To tell red Flodden's dismal tale, 
And raise the universal wail. 
Tradition, legend, tune, and song 
Shall many an age the wail prolong ; 
Still from the sire the son shall hear 
Of the stern strife and carnage drear, 

Of Flodden's fatal field, 
Where shivered was fair Scotland's spear, 

And broken was her shield ! " 



CHAPTER I. 

LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

1. Ever since we began to talk we have been learning 
the use of language ; that is, we have been learning how 
to make other persons know what we want and what we 
think and how we feel, by speaking- to them in words 
which they will hear and understand. 

(a) As we grew older we learned to write our words 
for others to see and read ; and in this way, if we were 
all deaf and dumb, we should still be able to use our 
language. 

(6) Even if we knew nothing of spoken or of written 
language, we might express ourselves in part — but very 
imperfectly — by looks, motions, or other signs. Very 
many animals show their feelings by making the sounds 
peculiar to themselves, and we, in the same way, could cry 
and hiss and groan and laugh. 

2. But mankind are gifted by nature with the power 
to change such simple sounds as the lower animals can 
make, into thousands and thousands of words, each with a 
different meaning. This power of speech or language 
requires the use of the palate, the tongue, the teeth, and 
the lips. Only man possesses it, and it gives him the 
most convenient way of expressing all that he feels, 
wishes, or knows. 



Z LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

The only other complete way comes from the use of 
writing, which was invented after men had conversed 
with one another for many years. 

3. The letters which make up a written word merely 
stand for the sounds we make in speaking the word, — 
just as the spoken word stands for what we think ; so that 
really we have two ways of using the same language. 

The tones in which we speak often mean a great deal that it is very hard to put in 
writing. 

4. The Study of Language is the study of words and of the 
proper use of them in expressing what we have to say. 

5. Now, since different nations and peoples have differ- 
ent words and different ways of using them, there are a 
great many languages that we do not understand. But 
we are to begin with the study of our own, the English 
language, which, though spoken first only in England, is 
now used in many other parts of the world. 

Our language is very different from what it was a thousand years ago; for it has 
been changing gradually ever since, and it is changing even now. 

(a) English, of course, is easiest for us to learn ; for 
young children always learn to use the language which 
they hear spoken instead of any other. Sometimes, how- 
ever, they live where the people speak what is not true 
English, but a peculiar kind of English, such as is called a 
dialect ; sometimes, too, they learn from persons who make 
many bad mistakes themselves; and sometimes children 
are very careless in their use of words. In fact, they are 
always liable to form wrong habits of speaking and writ- 
ing, which it is necessary afterward to change and to 
improve. 



GRAMMAR. d 

6. What we need to learn then, is, first, to express our- 
selves readily; and second, to express ourselves correctly 
by using onty such words as are used by the best speakers 
and writers of our time, and by imitating them in the way 
we put our words together. 

The surest way to become skilful is by constant prac- 
tice in correct speaking and writing. We should read 
books that are written in the best English, and we 
should study and imitate the ways of those who write 
them, and of those who speak the best English, so that 
we may use our language easily, as a good workman uses 
his tools, and so that we may be able to correct our own 
errors. 

7. Besides doing all this, it will be well to understand 
a little more than we do about words, and to learn some 
of the rules for using them. For, although we do not 
think about rules when we are speaking, they will make it 
easier for us to study examples of good English, and to 
form correct habits ourselves. It is pleasant, too, to feel 
that we know about our language, and that we can reason 
about our forms of expression. 

While studying language, then, we ought also to learn 
how our words are spelled and pronounced ; how one has 
been made from another ; how they are divided into classes ; 
how their forms are changed; and how they are put to- 
gether in sentences. This includes what is called English 
grammar. 

The grammar of any other language would be different in many ways. 

8. Grammar shows how words are made, how their forms are 
changed, and how they are put together in sentences according to 
their kinds, 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 



TEST QUESTIONS. 



1. Of what use is language? 2. What sort of language do ani- 
mals use ? 3. How is it different from ours ? 4. In what two ways 
do we use our language? 5. Of what does it consist? 6. Of what 
are words composed ? 7. What do we use besides the lips in speak- 
ing? 8. How do the dumb converse? 9. What is the Study of Lan- 
guage ? 

10. What languages have you heard of besides English? 11. In 
what countries is English spoken? 12. How do we first learn the 
use of language? 13. Whom should we imitate in our practice of 
speaking and writing? 14. Why do we need to do this? 15. What 
can be learned by studying gr4toanar ? 



CHAPTER II. 



THE SENTENCE: KINDS. 

9. When we converse with one another, or write letters 
to our friends, we first have thoughts in our own minds, 
and then we show to others what they are by the words 
that we use; so that what we say depends on what we 
think. 1 

EXERCISE I. 

1. Think of. something you did yesterday, and tell what it was. 

2. Mention three things that happened in your last vacation. 

3. What questions might a stranger ask in a city ? 

4. Ask two questions about your next vacation. 

5. Say three things that you are asked to do by your teacher. 

6. How would you ask for a book? 

10. Each word differs from almost every other word in 
its meaning or in its use, and we select those best suited 
to express our thoughts. 

If we were to go into the woods together, we might say, — 

1. I should like to come here every day. 

2. This path leads to the cliff. 

3. Do the birds sing in the rain? 

4. Are there any violets there ? 

5. Listen to the brook. 

6. Come and sit under this tree. 

1 Throughout this book what is said of spoken language is generally to be applied in 
the same way to written language. 



6 THE SENTENCE: KINDS. 

On a ship we should have very different thoughts, and we might 
say,— 

1. The water looks very green. 

2. I am very fond of sailing. 

3. What makes the clouds seem so low ? 

4. Wouldn't you like to see an iceberg? 

5. Come but on the quarter-deck, 

6. See that steamer in the distance. 

11. In each of these examples the words are so arranged 
that they have a definite meaning, and taken together they 
form what is called a sentence. Let us see for what pur- 
pose each of these sentences is used. 

Read the first two sentences in each group. In these 
we say what we know or believe. 

Read sentences 3 and 4. In these we do not say that 
anything does or is so and so, we only ask about it ; and 
in sentences 5 and 6 we request or order something to be 
done. 

EXERCISE 2. 

1. Write two questions that might be asked after a snow-storm. 
Two commands that might be given. Two statements that might be 
made. 

2. Write six more as if you were on a railway train. 

12. Any other sentences we could make would do one 
of these three things, — assert, ask, or order. Hence we 
say that — 

Sentences are complete assertions, questions, or commands. 

EXERCISE 3. 

1. Make a perfect copy of the twelve sentences given in § 10. 

2. What is the meaning of " assert " ? 

3. Make assertions in answer to the four questions. 



KINDS OF SENTENCES. 7 

4. Make replies to the four requests. 

5. Change the four assertions to questions. 

13. When we speak and when we write we put our 
words together into sentences of one kind or another. If 
we use only single words, such as — 

leads, like, are, birds, brook, path, 

we do not really say anything; and if anybody speaks 
them, we can only wonder, "Who leads?" "Who like?" 
« What are ? " " What about birds, brook, path, etc. ? " 

14. The same is true of every group of words that is 
not a sentence, even though the words may be arranged 
so as to have some meaning. For example : — 

the clouds. fond of sailing, 

under this tree. looks green, 

school of fishes. leads to the castle, 

through the valley. to the brook, 

green -with leaves. has brought. 

If we should read these expressions backwards, they 
would have no meaning at all; as they are, they might 
form parts of sentences : but they are not sentences, and 
they do not give any information, for they do not form 
statements, questions, or commands. 

EXERCISE 4. 

1. Think about each of these groups of words, and then tell whether 

it is a complete sentence or only part of one. Give your reason 

thus : — 

'* Green with leaves " is not a sentence, because it does not form a statement, ques- 
tion, or command. 

1. A fine October morning. 

2. The leaves are red and green. 

3. And some yellow. 

4. Here are some purplish ones. 



5. None are brown. 

6. The trees in the swamps. 

7. Very few flowers remain. 

8. All along the road to the pond. 



THE SENTENCE: KINDS. 



9. Found twenty dead trees. 

10. Some were girdled by mice. 

11. Dry and brittle as pipe-stems. 

12. We set them on fire. 

13. O such a blaze ! 

14. The smoke filled the air. 

15. A strong wind from the north- 

west. 



16. Let us try to find some nuts. 

17. Are there any chestnut-trees 

in the grove? 

18. Very few. 

19. Bring your basket to-morrow. 

20. If it rains. 

21. Three gray squirrels in a hol- 

low tree. 



2. Change those of the preceding groups that are only parts of 
sentences, into complete sentences by using additional words. 

3. Tell in your own words what they are all about, as if you were 
telling a story. 

15. We have seen that every sentence either asserts or 
asks or orders. Hence we say that — 

There are three kinds of sentences. We call them 
assertive, interrogative, and imperative. 

16. An Assertive Sentence states a fact or an opinion. 1 

As : You speak correctly. You will learn to speak correctly. 

17. An Interrogative Sentence asks a question. 2 

As : Do I speak correctly ? 

18. An Imperative Sentence gives a command, makes a re- 
quest, or expresses a wish. 2 

As : Speak correctly. Please teach me to speak correctly. 

EXERCISE 5. 

1. After reading each of these sentences, tell whether it is asser- 
tive, interrogative, or imperative. Give your reason thus : — 

" Cheer up " is an imperative sentence, because it gives a command. 



1 The use of suppositions, as, " If he come," is confined to clauses, 

2 Without being a statement. 



EXCLAMATIONS. 



1. Have you ever heard of Aus- 

tralia ? 

2. That's a strange question. Of 

course I have. 

3. Do not be provoked. 

4. I am going there next month. 

5. Should you like to be my com- 

panion ? 

6. Indeed I should. 



7. Do you really mean it ? 

8. Tell me. 

9. How long should we stay ? 

10. Think how I should enjoy it! 

11. You will take me. 

12. Won't you say yes? 

13. O I must go ! 

14. Stop! 

15. Remember how far it is. 



2. Listen to the reading of sentences by your teacher, and tell the 
kind of each as you hear it. 

3. Classify the sentences in any of the subsequent exercises in 
this book. 

4. What does "interrogative" mean? 

19. Exclamations. Sentences of any of these classes 
may also be exclamatory ; that is, they may also express 
excitement, surprise, or impatience. For example : — 

Assertive : 'Tis false ! There he goes ! 

Interrogative : Who would be afraid ! 
Imperative : Stop it ! Keep your courage up ! 



EXERCISE 6. 

1. Which of the sentences in Ex. 5 are also exclamatory? 

2. What kind of sentence is each of these ? 



1. Hark! 

2. Who cares ! 

3. Do come here ! 

4. We shall be so happy ! 



5. Rouse, ye Romans ! 

6. May Heaven bless you ! 

7. What do you say, you rascal ! 

8. Who would have believed it ! 



20. 



Exclamations like — 

How many colors the sunset shows! 



"What a long ride it would be to the moon ! 

seem to form a new class; but they are really shortened forms of command sentences, 
— See how many colors, etc. Think what a long ride, etc. 
Exclamations of this kind always begin with how or what. 



10 THE SENTENCE: KINDS. 

Put each of these exclamations into the form of a request to see, notice, think, or 
something of that sort : — 

How the thunder roars! What a commotion it makes! What a strange ship that is! 
How it pitches ! How you behave ! 

EXERCISE 7. 

1. Which of these exclamations are sentences ? To what class does 
each sentence belong? 



1. There they go ! 

2. A fine day ! 

3. Hear the wind ! 



4. See the snow ! I 7. Wait a moment ! 

5. Good morning! 8. Who would care ! 



). What a shame ! | 9. We are ready ! 
2. What does " imperative " mean ? 

TEST QUESTIONS. 

1. Do we ever have thoughts without expressing them ? 2. How 
can we express them except by words ? 3. Have you seen in books 
any words that you never use ? 4. Does it make any difference in 
what order we say our words ? 5. How do we use sentences except 
to ask questions? 

6. If a group of words is properly arranged, is it always a sentence ? 

7. How can you decide whether a group of words is a sentence or not? 

8. What do we call sentences that give commands? 9. Those that 
ask questions? 10. Those that make statements? 11. Give an 
example of each kind. 12. When are a person's sentences likely to 
be exclamatory ? 

13. Read § 6, and tell, in your own words, how to become skilful in 
the use of language. 14. Read § 7, and then mention as many things 
as you can think of that may be learned about language. 



CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION. 

21. When speaking-, we ought to vary our tones and 

the length of our pauses, so as to make our sentences as 
expressive as possible. So in writing-, we should always 
make our meaning as clear as we can, by using capital 



CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION. 11 

letters in the proper places, and by dividing our sen- 
tences with marks of punctuation. 

The following rules show us how to begin and end our sentences : — 

22. Every sentence must begin with a capital letter. 

23. An assertive or an imperative sentence must be followed 
by a period [.]. 

24. An interrogative sentence must be followed by a ques- 
tion-mark [2]. 

25. But a sentence of any sort that is also exclamatory, should 
be followed by an exclamation-point [!]. 

EXERCISE 8. 

Copy these sentences, using capitals and marks of punctuation 
where they belong : — 

there was a storm of sleet and snow yesterday the night was very 
cold is the road on the hill smooth enough for coasting bring your 
sleds we will go to see let the wind blow are you well protected 
shall we run to keep warm here we are at last what do you think 
of this couldn't I steer the double-runner see us go to the bridge 
across the creek give us a good start look out for the old stump 
this is a fine coast we came down in less than half a minute shall 
we try it again 

EXERCISE 9. 

1. Write the following sentences, using capitals, commas, and 
other marks of punctuation in their proper places. [See Pt. I., 
§§ 1-5.] 

children we want you to go picnicking with us this afternoon 
you are to go home now ask leave to come to the pine grove towaid 
germantown make haste do you think margie will consent there 
are nine of us going henry will you bring a hook and line we will 
get the bait tell ned have you ever caught butterflies with a net 
boys do you not think it is cruel sport ellen will you be cook all 
meet at the bridge at one can you walk all the way from home we 
shall come back before sunset do not keep us waiting girls be 
on time. 



12 THE SENTENCE: KINDS. 

2. Read the five assertive sentences. Read the six that are inter- 
rogative. The six that are imperative. 

3. What is the rule for using the comma in these sentences ? 

EXERCISE 10. 

1. Write one assertive sentence about coal; one about charcoal; 
and one about coke. m 

2. Write an interrogative sentence about wool, cotton, or flax, 
using your teacher's name. 

3. Write an imperative sentence addressed to a well-trained dog. 
To a stage-driver. To an army. 

4. State a fact about the telescope. 

5. Write a question to a friend about his health. 

6. Make an order asking the grocer to send you something. 

7. Write three assertive sentences about photographs. 

8. Make an assertion about London. 

9. Change this assertion to a question. 

10. Address a question to a classmate about the equator. 

11. Write what his answer might be. 

EXERCISE II. 

Use the following words correctly in sentences, so as to make four 
of each kind : — 



fatigue 


sluggard 


irrigate 


resume 


hero 


nutritious 


telegram 


inquiry 


compliment 


permission 


machinery 


choir 



TEST QUESTIONS. 

1. Do the tones in which people speak ever help you to under- 
stand them ? 2. In speaking, how do we show where our sentences 
end? 3. How is it in writing? 4. Mention two uses of capital 
letters. 5. Make a sentence that would need an exclamation-point 
after it. 6. Give three rules for punctuation. 

7. In spelling, what is a syllable made up of? 8. Syllables are 
parts of what? 9. W T hat is a group of words that makes a statement? 
10. What would you call a number of sentences on one topic ? 



CHAPTER III. 

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

A. THE SUBJECT. 

26. Every assertive sentence must of course be an 
assertion about something. Whenever we make a state- 
ment, we say that something is or does so and so. 



EXERCISE 12. 

Read each sentence, and say what the statement is about. 



1. Embers glow. 

2. Opals gleam. 

3. Fire-flies glint. 

4. Gold glitters. 



5. Dewdrops glisten. 

6. Sunsets flame. 

7. Lamps flare. 

8. Lightning flashes. 



9. Candles flicker. 

10. Torches blaze. 

11. Diamonds sparkle. 

12. Stars twinkle. 



27. The part of the sentence that signifies what we 
speak of is called the subject. Thus, in the sentence — 

Bees hum, 

we speak of bees, and the word bees is the subject. 

EXERCISE 13. 
What is the subject in the following sentences? Give your reason 
thus : — 

"Horses neigh." In this sentence the word " horses " is the subject, because it 
represents that about which something is said. 



1. Sparrows chirp. 

2. Chickens peep. 

3. Cocks crow. 



4. Owls screech. 

5. Crows caw. 

6. Larks sing. 



7. Doves coo. 

8. Geese cackle. 

9. Hens cluck. 



14 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 



28. In the following sentences the same statement is made about 
four different things : — 

Butterflies find honey in flowers. 

Honey-bees find honey in flowers. 

Humming-birds find honey in flowers. 

Burly bumble-bees find honey in flowers. 

Read the subject of each one, and tell how many words are used 
in forming it. 

EXERCISE 14. 

What is the whole subject in each sentence ? Give your reason 

thus : — 

"The deep blue sea flows round the world." In this sentence the words "The 
deep blue sea" are the subject, for they represent that of which something is said. 



1. The ocean is bitter and salt. 

2. The wind was dying away. 

3. Large and small fishes came to 

the surface to breathe. 

4. Several whales were spouting. 

5. Seven icebergs were drifting 

past. 

6. What sign of life was there ? 



7. A polar bear could be seen 

amidst the ice and snow. 

8. The strongest ships are often 

crushed in the ice-floes. 

9. Whale-fishing is a dangerous 

occupation. 
10. D is the first letter of danger 
and of death. 



29, 

said. 



The Subject represents that about which something is 



B. THE PREDICATE. 

30. In every assertive sentence something is said about 
one thing or another. 

EXERCISE 15. 

What is said of the objects named in each of these sentences? 



1. Clouds float. 

2. Rain falls. 

3. Sleet drives. 

4. Snow drifts. 



5. Hail rattles. 

6. Water splashes. 

7. Wind blows. 

8. Waves break. 



9. Breakers roar. 

10. Billows roll. 

11. Oceans surge. 

12. Tides flow. 



THE PREDICATE. 15 

31. This part that states, declares, or asserts, is called 
the predicate. Thus, in the sentence — 
Frogs croak, 

the word croak is the predicate, because it stands for what 
we say about frogs. 

EXERCISE 16. 

What is the predicate in these sentences? Give your reason 

thus : — 

"Lions roar." In this sentence "roar" is the predicate, because it is used to say 
something about "lions." 



1. Donkeys bray. 

2. Bears growl. 

3. Wolves howl. 



4. Dogs bark. 

5. Lambs bleat. 

6. Monkeys chatter. 



7. The sea is rough. 

8. The sails are rent. 

9. We drop anchor. 



32. In the following sentences four different statements are made 
about the same thing : — 

Icebergs melt slowly. 
Icebergs come from the polar regions. 
Icebergs drift with the polar currents. 
Icebergs are very dangerous to commerce. 

Melt slowly in the first is the predicate, because it represents 
what is asserted of icebergs. 

Read the predicates of the other three sentences, and observe that 
they consist of several words. 

EXERCISE 17. 

1. What is the entire predicate in each sentence? Give your 
reason thus : — 

" The night was nearly spent." Here the words " was nearly spent " are the predi- 
cate, because they show what is said about " the night." 



1. All nature was asleep. 

2. Every leaf was still. 

3. The dew was sparkling. 



4. The sun had just appeared. 

5. Robins and bluebirds began to 

flutter about. 



16 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 



6. Gray smoke curled up from the 

chimneys. 

7. The stage-horn sounded in the 

distance. 



8. A dusty drover was hurrying 

some sheep along the road. 

9. Everything seemed to catch the 

spirit of the morning. 



2. Copy the sentences in Ex. 14, and draw a vertical line between 
the subject and the predicate, thus : — 

The earth | moves round the sun. 
33. The Predicate represents what is said about something. 



C. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE COMBINED. 

34. We have found that every assertive sentence has 
two necessary parts, — the subject, representing that about 
which the assertion is made, and the predicate, signifying 
what is asserted of the subject. 

Two words therefore may make a sentence. 

Interrogative and imperative sentences might be divided in the 
same way, but we study assertive sentences first because they are 
easier and more common. 

35. A single word, such as winter, does not make a 
sentence, for nothing is said about winter. Neither does 
comes alone make a sentence, for there is nothing to show 
what we are talking about. We need the two together, as 
in Winter comes. 

EXERCISE 18. 
1. Make predicates for each of these subjects, thus : — 

"Eyes see," — and bo on. 

mouths hands wings 

teeth feet fins 

tongues fingers tails 



eyes 
ears 
noses 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE COMBINED. 



17 



2. Make subjects for each of these predicates, thus 

"Lead sinks," — and so on. 



sinks. 


drifts. 


drive. 


sail. 


floats. 


swim. 


wade. 


ripple. 


freezes. 


melts. 


row. 


dash. 



36. If we use two assertive words, as goes comes, we 
have no sentence, any more than if we say autumn win- 
ter, for the two words must be of different sorts, — one 
that makes an assertion about what is signified by the 
other. As, — 

"Winter comes. Autumn goes. 

Sometimes two or more assertions are put together, so that we find one subject and 
predicate followed by another in the same sentence. As, — 

Autumn goes and winter comes. 

We shall study these combined sentences a little later. 



EXERCISE 19. 

Make sentences, using one of these words as subject and one as 
predicate : — 



fishes 


frogs 


men 


girls 


monkeys 


crawl 


walk 


trot . 


leap 


chatter 


worms 


birds 


boys 


horses 


ships 


% 


float 


swim 


run 


dance 



37. We generally require more than one ivord to show 

what we wish to speak of. Thus, we may wish to say 

that — 

Trees grow, 

meaning trees in general; but if we wish to speak more 
definitely, we say, — 

Those trees | grow, or 
Those tall trees | grow, or 
Those tall trees with arching branches | grow. 



18 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 



So, too, generally more than one word is needed to ex- 
press what we wish to say about anything. Thus, we 
may say, — 

The trees | grow, or 

The trees | grow rapidly, or 

The trees | grow rapidly this year, or 

The trees | grow rapidly this year without care. 

Hence the subject and the predicate may each consist of 
several words. 

EXERCISE 20. 

In each sentence tell where the predicate begins : — 



A very dark bay horse was the winner of the race. 
The greatest living English poet has lately arrived. 
Nearly all the school children had danced at the fair. 
The Man in the Moon is not a real man. 
The House that Jack Built is the name of a story. 
Alice in Wonderland is the title of a book. 



EXERCISE 21. 

Write predicates of more than one word for these subjects ; that is, 
say something so as to make an assertive sentence : — 



1. 


Stars 


8. 


Margaret 


15. 


The West Indies 


2. 


The sun 


9. 


Alfred 


16. 


A looking-glass 


3. 


The moon 


10. 


Honesty 


17. 


My photograph 


4. 


Hummm g-birds 


11. 


Kindness 


18. 


Oil-paintings 


5. 


Peacocks 


12. 


Anger 


19. 


Drops of water 


6. 


Squirrels 


13. 


The United States 


20. 


A boat on the lake 


7. 


Helen 


14. 


The Andes 


21. 


Huge waves 



EXERCISE 22. 

Write subjects of more than one word for these predicates : — 



1. are chirping. 

2. are buzzing. 

3. are croaking. 



4. laid the wall. 

5. built the house. 

6. made the furniture. 



ESSENTIAL SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 



19 



7. 



10. 
11. 

12. 



is the President of the United 

States. 
was a great general, 
were an ancient people, 
shade the streets, 
shade the windows, 
shade the women's faces. 



13. grow in the conservatory. 



14. are found in the woods . 

15. float in with the tide. 

16. live upon flesh. 

17. are all used for food. 

18. are found in menageries. 

19. is a beautiful poem. 

20. contained the advertisement. 

21. was very neatly written. 



EXERCISE 23. 

Write five sentences telling what happens 



1. 


On a rainy day. 


6. 


In autumn. 


2. 


In a menagerie. 


7. 


In church. 


3. 


On board a ship. 


8. 


During a sleigh-ride. 


4. 


On Christmas-day. 


9. 


In a coal mine. 


5. 


After a snow-storm. 


10. 


On a farm. 



TEST QUESTIONS. 

1. Explain what a statement or assertion is. 2. What are the two 
essential parts of every sentence ? 3. Which is the more important ? 
Give your reason. 4. How many words are necessary to make a sen- 
tence ? Why? 5. Which part do you call the subject? 6. Why is 
the other part called the predicate? 7. Which part shows of what 
we are speaking ? 8. Does it ever take more than one word to do 
this? 9. Why will not two asserting words make a sentence? 



D. ESSENTIAL SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

38. If we think about the sentences we use, we see 
that the subject part is very different from the predicate 
part. 

EXERCISE 24. 

Which of these expressions might be used as predicates ? 



l.^the smoke 

2. over the valley 

3. disappeared 

4. poisonous gases 



5. covers the ground 

6. morning mists 

7. may settle 

8. was scattered 



9. a delicate perfume 

10. will evaporate 

11. smells very sweet 

12. of a furnace 



20 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 



39. Some of our words, as — 

John, eagles, dewdrops, courage, childhood, 

are names of things, and, like him, I, you, etc., they cannot be used to 
state or assert. But we see at once that asserting words, like — 

catches, soar, glisten, strengthens, hastens, 
are very different, and that we do not use them as subjects. 



EXERCISE 25. 

. Which of these words are names of things ? 
be used to assert ? 



Which of them can 



raked 


grass 


pruned 


wealth 


fails 


vines 


awoke 


seed 


buys 


believes 


fields 


wept 


goods 


lawn 


poverty 


sells 


mowed 


plowed 


slept 


succeeds 



40. The complete subject of a sentence must always 
contain one word that serves as a name for what we speak 
of. The most of such words are called nouns. So the 
complete predicate must always contain an assertive word 
called a verb. 

These are the necessary or essential parts of every sub- 
ject and predicate, no matter how long they happen to be. 

41. It is true that with these essential words we often use other 
expressions, such as — 

wise, large, for, bravely, in the sea, 
to make our sentences more accurate or more definite; but we can 
always drop them off, and leave the skeleton or most necessary part 
of the statement remaining. 
Thus, in the sentence — 

The white snow | falls upon the fields, 
the complete subject is — 

The white snow ; 
but of these three words the necessary or essential one is snow, for 
it names what we speak of more than either of the other words do. 
We call it the essential subject. 



ESSENTIAL SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 



21 



So in the complete predicate, falls upon the fields, the essential 
word is falls ; for it is the least that will make an assertion, and 
there would be no assertion without it. Hence, it is the essential 
predicate. 

We could leave out all but these two words, snow falls, and we 
should still have a statement. 

EXERCISE 26. 

Lengthen each of these bare sentences by adding words to the 

essential subject and to the essential predicate, so as to make a fuller 

and more definite statement. Thus : — 

" Trouble | arises." 
causes. 



Serious trouble among friends | often arises from trifling 



1. ivies grew 

2. ships sail 

3. pictures hang 



4. carpenter built 

5. house stood 

6. gale broke 



7. walls fell 

8. windows looked 

9. room contained 



EXERCISE 27. 

1. In these sentences what is the whole or complete subject? 



2. Find the bare or essential subject 
names what the assertion is about. 



that is, the one word that 



1. Our journey soon begins. 

2. The last day has come. 

3. Many years of happiness are 

gone. 

4. All the future is uncertain. 

5. A cold, bleak wind is blowing. 



6. Travelling by night seems 

dreary. 

7. The road to town is rough and 

steep. 

8. For a week no friends will 

greet us. 



EXERCISE 28. 

1. In these sentences what is the complete predicate? 

2. Find also the bare or essential predicate; that is^ find the 
asserting word. 



1. The storm passed this side of 

the mountains. 

2. Our prospects brightened at 

once. 

3. We hoped for the best. 

4. Time decides all questions. 



5. Something always happens un- 

expectedly. 

6. The surprise gives us courage. 

7. The morning finds our journey 

ended. 

8. Who cares for wintry storms? 



ZZ SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

EXERCISE 29. 

Write these sentenoes ; separate the principal parts by a vertical 
Jine ; draw a wavy line under the essential subject, and a straight line 
ander the verb, or essential predicate, thus : — 

The leaves of this tree | fall every autumn. 

1. The southern forests yield the largest timber. 

2. The trunks of some trees measure several feet in diameter. 

3. The elms resemble human beings. 

4. Their arching tops almost speak to us. 

5. Whispers come from groves of pine. 

6. Their needle-like leaves make a luxurious carpet. 

7. The sturdy oak stands for stability and strength. 

8. The wood of this tree serves many useful purposeSo 

9. The lifetime of a tree depends in part on its surroundings. 

10. A century in the forest makes a venerable giant. 

11. Earth with her thousand voices praises God. 

12. Bad habits gather by unseen degrees. 

13. The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 

14. The broken soldier talked the night away. 

15. The king unstrung his chain of gold. 

16. Such gallant act deserves a meed of praise. 

TEST QUESTIONS. 

1. Can all words be used as subjects? Tell the reason. 2. What 
,<;ort of words can be used as predicates ? 3. Do you know any name 
for words that can be used as subjects ? 4. What name is given to 
assertive words ? 5. What is the meaning of " essential " ? 6. What 
is the essential part of every subject? 7. What kind of word always 
forms the essential predicate? 8. What two kinds of words will 
make an assertion? 9. Why are other words used in a sentence? 
10. Point out the essential subject and predicate in " Cliffs of chalk 
extend along the English coast." 



CHAPTER IV. 

KINDS OF WORDS. 

42. Since we have studied the two most important 
ways of using words, we now know what the two prin- 
cipal kinds are. 

Words used to assert, even if the} 7 " have very different 
meanings, are all classed together as verbs ; and when we 
speak of nouns we always mean words that can be used as 
names. 

So, too, all other words are divided into classes according 
to the way we use them in making sentences. Hence we 
say that — 

43. Words are divided into kinds or classes according to their 
use in sentences. 

EXERCISE 30. 

1. Write seven words that can be used as names. 

2. Use each one with other words in making a sentence. 

3. Write seven that can be used to assert, and make sentences 
with them. 

4. Tell the use of each of the words in Ex. 25. 



I. NOUNS. 
EXERCISE 31. 



1. Mention five kinds of birds ; of fur-bearing animals. 

2. Name five things you have seen in a store ; at a fair. 



24 KINDS OF WORDS. 

3. Name five things to be seen at the seaside, or by a river. Name 
five to be seen — 

On a ship. Among mountains. On a farm. In a mill. 

4. Name several things to be heard — 

On the street. When travelling. In church. In the night. 

5. What are four things that make — 

A good scholar? A good soldier? A boy's character? A poor 
scholar ? 

44. About half the words in our language are alike in 
one respect; that is, they are names of things, and are 
therefore called Nouns. 

EXERCISE 32. 

1. Examine these sentences carefully, and mention every name or 
noun that you find : — 

1. The garden is brilliant with 

daffodils and tulips. 

2. Their beauty depends much 

upon their colors. 

3. This brook is full of fine trout. 

4. "Poor Richard" was born in 

Boston. 

5. Hear the jingle of the sleigh- 

bells. 

6. A cry of joy rings through the 

land. 

7. How delicate the perfume is ! 

2. Which of the nouns denote something that has weight? 



8. The merry shouts of children 

fill the air. 

9. What report did the messenger 

bring ? 

10. The breeze brings the odor of 

the flowers. 

11. Pain teaches men patience. 

12. Hope was followed by despair. 

13. Our guide had no fear in times 

of danger. 

14. Innocence is the charm of 

childhood. 



45. Some nouns stand for such things as can be seen ; as, — 
daffodils, beauty, Richard, Boston: 
others for what we hear ; as, — 

jingle, cry, shout, report. 
Some for what we can only smell ; as, — 

fragrance, odor, perfume: 



NOUNS. 25 

others for what can be felt in some way ; as, — 

breeze, pain, heat, fear, despair: 

and when we come to think more about all such things we find use 
for many other nouns ; as, — 

innocence, charm, childhood. 

Arrange all the nouns in the last exercise in five lists as in § 45. 

46. A Noun is a word used as the name of something. 

The word " noun " means just this : the name by which a thing is known. 

EXERCISE 33. 

1. Make a list of ten vehicles that run on wheels. 

2. What names are given to structures in which men live? 

3. Name some things that are found in the earth. 

4. In what different craft do men travel by water ? 

5. Name as many as you can of the parts of a ship. 

47. An assertion may be made about anything we can 
name, and so any noun may be the subject of a sentence. 
But we often use the name of something about which we 
do not make any statement, and so we may have in one 
sentence many nouns besides the subject. Thus : — 

This steamship | has two red paddle-wheels, a black stack 
for the smoke, and three tall masts without sails. 

Here steamship is the subject, and the complete predicate is a 
long one containing five nouns. What are they? 

EXERCISE 34. 

1. Which of the nouns in Ex. 32 do not belong to the subject ? 

2. Tell how many nouns are used in each sentence in Ex. 14. 

3. Write sentences, using three of these nouns in each one : — 



flock 


raven 


fox 


thief 


wings 


geese 


piece 


tail 


home 


flapping 


trees 


cheese 


brush 


dinner 


noise 



26 



KINDS OF WORDS. 



48, When the complete subject contains the names of several 
things, we must be careful to distinguish the one essential word which 
if it stood alone would still name the subject. Thus, in the sentence — 

The famous palace of the kings of the Moors at Grenada, in 
Spain, | was called the Alhambra, 

we have five nouns in the complete subject ; but we see that it is the 
palace that is said to have been called the Alhambra. The other 
words are added to show which palace is referred to. 

EXERCISE 35. 

1. Make a list of the twenty-five nouns in these sentences. Draw 
a wavy line under the eleven used as subjects. 1 



1. The darkest clouds bring rain. 

2. The leaves of the trees rustled 

in the wind. 

3. Great clouds of smoke were 

floating in the air. 

4. The rays of the sun were al- 

most entirely obscured. 

5. A dim light came in at the 

windows. 

6. Our tasks were left undone. 



7. At night the moon could not 

be seen. 

8. The trees along the river were 

torn up by the roots. 

9. The birds' feathers were wet 

and dripping. 
The brooks on the mountains 

were swollen to torrents. 
A wooden bridge near the 

town was carried away. 



10. 



11. 



2. Write an account of a severe storm. 

EXERCISE 36. 

1. Make a list of nouns that designate the members of a family 
or other relatives. 

2. Give ten nouns that designate people according to their trades. 

3. Name the different parts — 

of a wagon ; of a bird ; of a book ; of a watch ; of a church. 

4. Name some things made — 

of glass ; of leather ; of paper ; of steel ; of snow ; of stone. 

5. Mention the names of several games ; virtues; vices; diseases. 



1 While studying grammar we will use the word " subject " to mean the " essential " 
subject. 



NOUNS. 



27 



EXERCISE 37. 

Here are twenty hard words. Select the ten that are nouns, and 
give their meaning. 



intelligent 

microscope 

acquiesce 

macaroni 

buoy 



buoyant 

telephone 

telegraphic 

hypocrite 

powerfully 



synonym 

timorous 

rheumatism 

sympathize 

aeronaut 



w r holesome 

epitaph 

mysterious 

mistletoe 

desecrate 



EXERCISE 38. 

1. When words are synonyms, do they have the same meaning or 
only similar meaning? 

2. Copy these nouns, uniting into groups by themselves all that are 
synonyms for one another : — 



flag 


might 


narrative 


parson 


source 


tale 


minister 


anecdote 


fight 


cause 


story 


terror 


fear 


banner 


combat 


power 


origin 


fright 


alarm 


battle 


clergyman 


strength 


ensign 


force 




EXERC 


ISE 39. 





1. Rewrite these sentences using different nouns in every case. 
Choose synonyms when you can. 



1. The scholars need careful in- 

structors. 

2. The messenger came up the 

avenue in great haste. 

3. The waves dashed the vessel 

against the pier. 

4. Liberty is better than slavery. 



5. Wisdom is more precious than 

rubies. 

6. Yonder church has a tall spire. 

7. Is not honesty better than de- 

ceit ? 

8. The way of the transgressor is 

hard. 



2. Which of the nouns name material objects such as have 
weight ? 



28 KINDS OF WORDS. 

TEST QUESTIONS. 

1. What are the two most important kinds of words ? 2. How do 
we tell to which class a word belongs ? 3. What is an asserting word 
called? 4. Explain why we need to use nouns in speaking. 5. Find 
five that stand for what we cannot see, nor hear, nor touch. 6. How 
many nouns are there in the complete subject? 7. Which is the most 
important one, and how can it be found? 



II. PRONOUNS. 
EXERCISE 40. 



1. In these sentences : — 

Mr. Richardson was a wealthy man. He kept many horses. These 
were his favorites. They lived in a fine stable. It was like a dwell- 
ing-house, — 

who is meant by he ? What by these ? By his ? By they ? To 
what does it refer ? 

2. Copy the sentences, using these other words instead of he, 
they, etc., but without changing the meaning. 

3. Which do you think is the better way to make these assertions ? 
Give the reason. 

4. Mention all the nouns in your copy. 

49. Besides nouns, there are a few other words such as 
lie, these, they, it, that often stand for that which we have 
just mentioned, no matter what it is. 

Thus, if any one said, — 

The President has inspected the Navy, 
he might add, — 

He found it in fair condition ; 
but he would not repeat the nouns, and say that, — 

The President found the Navy in fair condition. 

So when we point to a thing we generally use a word of 
this sort instead of calling it by name. 



PRONOUNS. 29 

EXERCISE 41. 

1. In the sentence, " He found it in fair condition," how do we 
know what he and it mean? 

2. How would you know what was meant by this, that, these, and 
those, if any one should say to you : — 

These are good for nothing. That is very valuable. This cannot 
be bought elsewhere. Those sell very readily. 

50. Such words are called Pronouns because they take 
the place of nouns ; and we always prefer to use them if 
only we can be understood. 

EXERCISE 42. 

1. Try to improve the following by using other words instead of 
repeating the nouns : — 



1. The people were returning from 

work. 

2. The work was very hard. 

3. The work seemed to make the 

people weary. 



4. One woman was very ill. 

5. This woman was being carried 

by the woman's husband. 

6. The husband was the town- 

crier. 



2. If Jane were speaking to John, would she say, "John surprised 
Jane," or, " You surprised me " ? 

3. If Carl were greeting his friend William, what would he say 
instead of " Carl is glad to see William "? 

51. When we speak or write to a person, we do not 
keep referring to him by name; we say you, instead: and 
when we say anything about ourselves, we never think of 
using our names ; for, no matter what they are, we almost 
always say, I, me, myself, we, us, and so on. 

Thus, we should say, — 

I wish you would come to see me, 
and the reply might be, — 

We shall be glad to have you entertain us. 



30 



KINDS OF WORDS. 



Here there are no nouns, — nobody is mentioned by name ; but the 
meaning would be very clear to those who were present. 

Try to substitute names, and you will see how convenient the 
pronouns are. 

EXERCISE 43. 

1. Select the pronouns in these sentences ; that is, the words used 
instead of nouns : — 



1. The doctor is coining. 

2. Call to him. 

3. Have you improved ? 

4. Yes ; I feel quite well. 

5. Early this morning I could see 

your arms stretched out over 
the snow. 



6. It was perfectly white. 

7. They seemed to me to be 

frozen. 

8. The nurse was with us. 

9. She warmed them by rubbing. 

10. You must thank her. 

11. We are very glad. 



2. Which of the pronouns are used as subjects? 

52. When we do not know the name of a person or 
a thing, we have to use a pronoun in asking questions. 
Thus we say, — 

Who brought the news? Which did you say? 

What caused the fire? Whom shall we blame? 

Whose was the house? 



EXERCISE 44. 

1. Write assertive sentences in answer to the preceding questions. 

2. What words have you used in place of the pronouns ? 

3. Write imperative or interrogative sentences, using two of these 
pronouns in each one : — 

I, me, we, us, 

myself, mine, ourselves, ours. 

Which of these refer to the person speaking ? 

4. Make a list of pronouns that refer to some person or thing that 
has just been mentioned. Consult Exs. 40, 41, and 43. 



PRONOUNS. 



31 



53. (a) Every one of the thousands of nouns in our 
language, and every expression, however long, that is used 
like a noun to describe a person or a thing, can be replaced 
at one time or another by pronouns. 

(&) The use of them enables us to point out what we 
have been talking about more exactly than we could by 
taking the trouble to describe it again. 

(c) They form a class by themselves because their 
meaning depends upon the connection in which they 
stand ; but they are used as subjects and in other ways 
very much as nouns are. 



EXERCISE 45. 

In these sentences give the whole expression that each pronoun 
takes the place of: — 



1. The sail down the river was 

very pleasant. 

2. It occupied about nine hours. 

3. We met several fine yachts. 

4. They seemed to be racing. 

5. The captain of the steamer told 

many of his adventures. 



6. Two of them were very exciting. 

7. His first vessel was a brigantine 

of six hundred tons. 

8. She foundered off: the coast of 

Jamaica. 

9. He told us how he was forced 

to abandon her. 



54. A Pronoun is a word that may take the place of a 
noun, and represent any person or thing' as present or just men- 
tioned. 

The word " pronoun " means for a noun. 



EXERCISE 46. 

1. Use suitable pronouns in place of the nouns that are not 
needed. 

1. Arnold's treason showed that Arnold was base at heart. 

2. The arc of a circle is any part of the circle's circumference. 

3. We must harvest the crops before the crops freeze. 



32 KINDS OF WORDS. 

4. The queen gave the queen's orders to the captain ; and the cap- 
tain, on receiving the orders, promised to save the town. 

5. Afterward the queen rewarded the captain for the captain's bra- 
very in defending the town. 

6. Patrick Henry said, " Give Patrick Henry liberty, or give Patrick 
Henry death." 

2. Make sentences containing the pronouns yourself, himself, herself 
itself themseloes. 

TEST QUESTIONS. 

1. What are pronouns? 2. Explain one of the ways of using them. 
3. Why are they often more convenient than nouns? 4. How do you 
tell what is meant by a pronoun ? 



III. VERBS. 
EXERCISE 47. 



1. What are assertive sentences ? Give an example. 

2. What are the other kinds ? Make a sentence of each kind. 

3. Explain the meaning of " assert." 

4. Make assertions about five things that you see. 

5. Which of the following are assertive? Are they sentences of 
any sort ? Tell your reason. 

1. Squirrels in hollow trees. I 3. We chestnuts in October. 

2. The sap in the spring. | 4. The ice thick enough to bear. 

6. Make assertive sentences of them by using live, flows, gather, is. 

7. Change them to interrogative sentences. 

55, Words used to assert are Verbs. 

They are not as numerous as nouns, but they form an equally im- 
portant class, and most other words have been derived from them. 

56. To make a complete sentence we need only give 
the name of something, and say or assert something about 



VERBS. 33 

it. With a noun or a pronoun and a verb we can do just 

this. As, — 

Flowers fade. Grass withers. 

I command. They obey. 

Without a verb there can be no assertion, — no predicate, 
— no sentence. 

EXERCISE 48. 

1. What kind of word will make sentences of the following? 
Supply what is needed. 1 

1. Rubber from South America. 

2. The pure gum very valuable. 

3. "Water the wheels of the mill. 

4. The cotton-plant in the Gulf States. 

5. A letter three thousand miles for two cents. 

6. The Gulf Stream northeast. 

7. Behring Strait the Arctic and the Pacific oceans. 

8. The signal service a fair day to-morrow. 

9. The snow ten feet deep in the woods last winter. 

10. The boys all hunting yesterday. 

11. The fox by hiding under a rock. 

12. Trout-fishing considerable skill. 

2. Mention the verbs in Ex. 29. 

57. The verb may be a single word that asserts; as 
when we say, — 

The tree | grows, meaning now, or 

The tree | grew, meaning some time ago. 

But if we wish to speak of time to come, we must say, — 

The tree | will grow; 
and in all these sentences, — 

The tree | is growing. 

1 Exercises of this sort should be repeated till the function of verbs is distinctly felt. 



34 



KINDS OF WORDS. 



The tree | has grown. 

The tree | would have grown. 

The tree | may be growing. 

The tree | might have been growing. 

we need the help of one, two, or three other words besides 
grown and growing, in order to assert what we mean 
about the growth of the tree. 

The words of each group taken together we call a verb- 
phrase, because they do the work of a single verb. 

EXERCISE 49. 

Select the expressions of more than one word that take the place 
of single verbs ; that is to say, the verb-phrases. 



1. The message was brought an 

hour ago. 

2. We had hoped for better news. 

3. But we must lose no time. 

4. The best horses have been sent 

over the turnpike. 

5. They may overtake the party. 

6. Otherwise nothing but failure 

awaits us. 



7. We might have kept Nero. 

8. It is too late now. 

9. Perhaps we shall meet them 

all at Castleton. 

10. Saddle your horses at once. 

11. The back road will be safest. 

12. I should inquire for them at 

Newbury. 

13. They must have gone early. 



58. Contractions. The first word of those that help 
to make a verb-phrase, is sometimes written so as to show 
that we cut it short in speaking. Thus, — 

We've met him, for We have met him. 



EXERCISE 50. 

Copy these expressions, writing out the verbs in full, as if they 
were to be spoken slowly : — 



1. I'm sorry. 

2. She'll come. 

3. Time's up. 
i. I've done. 



5. It's too late. 

6. We're here. 

7. You've heard. 

8. W r ho'scome? 



9. They'd just gone. 

10. She's waiting. 

11. You'd besurprised. 

12. W r e shaVt stay. 



VERBS. 35 

59. A Verb is an asserting word or phrase. 

The word " verb " means word, — that which is spoken. 

60. A Verb-phrase is a group of Avords used as a single 
verb. Verb-phrases are often called verbs. 

We shall learn sometime that many other groups of words U6ed like single words are 
also called phrases. 

EXERCISE 51. 

1. Select the single verbs and the verb-phrases. 

1. The air thickens. 2. Familiar objects are hidden as by a mist. 
3. Paths disappear. 4. Voices of teamsters are heard. 5. Nothing- 
can be seen in the road. 6. Like a fog the snow hides all things. 
7. Not a breath of wind disturbs its descent. 8. The branches of the 
trees are clothed as with wool. 9. Still the noiseless flakes fill the 
sky. 10. A change has taken place. 11. Now and then a puff of 
wind comes around the corner. 12. The storm is growing wilder 
every moment. 

2. Write a description of a snow-storm. 

EXERCISE 52. 

Fill the blanks with suitable verbs as you read these sentences : — 

1. Twenty-nine years ago Christmas on Saturday. 2. How 

well I the time ! 3. Such dreams as I in those days ! 4. The 

Thursday night before, I about Santa Claus. 5. In a low whis- 
per he to me thus : — 6. " To-morrow, my little maid, you 

to sleep early. 7. And very soundly till morning. 8. Be- 
fore sunrise I with a fir-tree for you. 9. But you not 

your secret to any but your sister." 10. At last the wished-for 

morning . 11. All the stars brightly. 12. The crys- 
tals of snow upon the ground like diamonds. 13. Through all 

these years I - — never my exquisite delight. 14. After our 

arrival at my uncle's across the road, some folding doors sud- 
denly open wide. 15. There in a blaze of light the bright 

vision of my dreams. 16. How the candles ! 17. And how we 

at the sight of such dolls and such gowns ! 



36 



KINDS OF WORDS. 



61. It very often happens, as in these sentences, — 
The man has a son. They man the boats. 

that there is no difference in the spelling of two words, 
one of which is a noun and the other a verb : and we must 
remember to decide about them by their use. 



EXERCISE 53. 

Distinguish between the nouns and the verbs that are spelled 
alike in these sentences. Thus: — 



" Pass " in first sentence is a verb ; " 

1. Pass through here. 

2. Order a load of stones. 

3. Load them with care. 

4. They work with their hands. 

5. They care not for play. 

6. He stones the stray dogs. 



pass " in the seventh sentence is a noun. 

7. Fear not the pass. 

8. He drives without fear. 

9. He hands me a whip. 

10. He dogs me while at my work. 

11. We whip them by your order. 

12. They play during my drives. 



EXERCISE 54. 

Write sentences, using each word once as a noun and once as a 
verb, as in § 61. 

milk point 

fan deck 

lap strap 



heat 


fly 


hope 


chain 


rock 


water 


stand 


fall 


iron 



EXERCISE 55. 

Make little groups of the words that are synonyms. 



help 
besiege 
honor 
aid 



hesitate 
withdraw 
assist 
wait 



relieve 
assail 
delay 
praise 



leave 
glorify 
pause 
attack 



assault 
depart 
applaud 
retire 



EXERCISE 56. 

Substitute other words for those in italics without much changing 
the meaning. 



ADJECTIVES. 37 

The man informed me just now that he had completed his task, and 
asserted that he never would labor for me again. When I inquired for 
the reason, he replied that he had stated the reason already. I bade 
him depart; for I desired to conceal my wrath before the ungrateful 
fellow. 

EXERCISE 57. 

Select one of the following topics, and write five short sentences 
about it. Draw a ivauy line under the subject, and a straight line 
under the verb. 



1. A thunder-storm. 

2. Getting breakfast. 

3. Making hay. 

4. A game of ball. 



5. Taking a photograph. 

6. A bicycle ride. 

7. A drive in the country. 

8. A ride to the city. 



TEST QUESTIONS. 

1. What is the use of verbs in sentences? 2. What do you call 
a verb that consists of several words ? Give three examples. 3. What 
is the difference between " I'll do it" and " I will do it"? 4. What 
besides a noun may be the subject of a verb? 5. Define verb and 
cerb-plirase. 6. Mention several words that can be used either as 
•rerbs or as nouns. 



IV. ADJECTIVES. 

62. We must have seen that most sentences are made 
up of something more than a noun (or a pronoun) and a 
verb. 

It is true, of course, that the very shortest ones may give us some 
information about their subjects. For example : in 

Ice breaks and Diamonds glitter, 

ice and diamonds are described a little ; but nobody wants to say, — 

Ice is or Diamonds are, 
for these verbs is and are do not tell us anything worth saying. 



38 



KINDS OF WORDS. 



We have to add the descriptive words, thus : — 

Ice is brittle. Diamonds are brilliant. 

Ice is cold. Diamonds are scarce. 

Ice is transparent. Diamonds are costly. 

Without these additions the predicate seems incomplete. 



EXERCISE 58. 

1. Which are the descriptive words in these sentences? What is 
described by each of them ? 



1. My roses are yellow. 

2. The sky was clear. 

3. The path will be narrow. 

4. The day had been cold. 

5. My answer may be wrong. 

6. They seem anxious. 

7. The night grows dark. 

8. Are you tired ? 

9. Will the ice be strong? 



11. Your rabbit is shy. 

12. I am hungry. 

13. She can be careful. 

14. We should be generous. 

15. My friend looks ill. 

16. The milk has become sour. 

17. The knives must be sharp. 

18. He appears wise. 

19. That velvet feels smooth. 

20. He arrived safe. 



10. Thou art mighty. 

2. Could the descriptive words be used like nouns as the subject 
of a sentence? Tell the reason. 

3. Change these expressions to assertions ; then change them to 
questions : — 



1. yellow gold 

2. eloquent orators 



3. lofty mountains 

4. fierce tigers 



5. dull knife 

6. skilful doctors 



EXERCISE 59. 

Make assertions, using with the verbs words descriptive of these 

subjects. Thus : — 

"Foxes are cunningJ" 



1. Foxes . 

2. The use of tobacco 

3. Rosewood . 

4. The music . 

5. Some clouds . 

6. Your clock . 



7. The pears in my orchard 

8. Our country . 

9. That well . 

10. Yonder mountains . 

11. My kitten . 

12. Country roads . 



ADJECTIVES. 



39 



EXERCISE 60. 

What could these words be used to describe ? Thus : 

" The fire wa6 disastrous." 



brave 
feeble 
clear 



brisk 
noisy 
charming 



disastrous 

wild 

uncertain 



sorrowful 
heavy- 
tiresome 



brilliant 

useless 

late 



63. Even when we use a verb that does not require 
something to be added, as in — 

Roses grow, 

still we commonly wish to tell what kind of roses is meant, 
and how, or where, or when they grow. Thus : — 
Yellow roses grow by still rivers. 

"Roses" alone would remind us of prickly bushes and the well- 
known flowers. We could only guess about their color. -But the 
descriptive word adds something more, as much as to say, — "the 
roses are yellow that grow there," — not pink, nor white, nor crimson. 

They may have had many good qualities and some bad ones, but 
yellow shows that they had at least the quality of yellowness. Still, 
also, shows that one of the qualities of the rivers was stillness. If we 
had wished to show that depth and width were other qualities, we 
might have said deep rivers or wide rivers. 



EXERCISE 61. 

What descriptive words can be used with these nouns to imply 
that they have the qualities set opposite them? Thus: — 

" Timber is strong." " Horses are swift." 

1. timber strength 7. wagons weight 

2. coals heat 8. clothing warmth 

3. poles length 9. flowers beauty 

4. grass dampness 10. children truthfulness 

5. horses speed 11. tigers ferocity 

6. kings power 12. princes wealth 



40 



KINDS OF WORDS. 



64. Words of this sort are called Adjectives because 
they describe a person or a thing by adding some quality 
to the name that is used ; that is, they describe or qualify 
what is mentioned. 

EXERCISE 62. 

1. Which words in these sentences are used with a noun to de- 
scribe the object it represents by adding some quality ? 



1. Kind friends have come. 

2. They brought us purple grapes. 

3. Black clouds turn to rain. 

4. Rolling stones gather no moss. 

5. Grangers gather golden grain. 

6. Studious boys make intelligent 

men. 

7. Fairest flowers will fade. 

8. Absent friends forget us. 

9. Little leaks sink great ships. 

10. Old wood makes the best fire. 

11. Sound health is long life. 

12. It is a warm day in July. 



13. W T hite, fleecy clouds are in the 

blue sky. 

14. 1 see a large grasshopper on a 

pointed leaf. 

15. He has eaten a small, round 

hole in it. 

16. My tapping on the leafy bough 

stops his merry song. 

17. Then a green locust begins 

with a loud buzz. 

18. The limp grass would be re- 

vived by a gentle rain or a 
heavy shower. 



2. Copy ten of these sentences, underlining subject and verb. En- 
close adjectives that qualify the subject in curves. Thus : — 
(Kind) friends have come. 



EXERCISE 63. 

Make lists of four adjectives each that may be used to qualify, 



iron 


road 


trees 


coal 


grapes 


sponge 


desk 


rope 


watch 


ship 


river 


gold 


farm 


tar 


sea 



65. An adjective, then, may be used in two ways : — 

1. We may make it a part of the predicate so as to 
assert that the subject has a certain quality ; as, — 
The meadows are fertile. Or, — 



ADJECTIVES. 



41 



2. Without using it as part of the assertion we may 
make it add to what the noun alone would mean ; as, — 

Happy children have sunny faces. 

EXERCISE 64. 

1. Mention the adjectives that are descriptive, and tell to what 
each one adds a quality. 



1. The day was pleasant. 

2. The busy bee improves the 

shining hour. 

3. The old songs are delightful. 

4. The Yosemite Valley is noted 

for its magnificent scenery. 

5. The domestic commerce of Bos- 

ton is extensive. 

6. I am reading an interesting- 

book. 

7. Richard looked sober at this. 

8. Delays are dangerous. 



9. Laughing is contagious. 

10. The moon silvers the distant 

hills. 

11. The full moon threw its sil- 

very light upon the rippling 
waters of the lake. 

12. On a low bench under a spread- 

ing tree sat an old sailor. 

13. Beneath her torn hat glowed 

the wealth 
Of simple beauty and rustic 
health. 



2. Which of the subjects have qualities asserted of them? 



66. Whichever way used, most adjectives describe what 
the noun or the pronoun represents. But there are other 
words called adjectives, which affect the meaning in a 
different way ; thus, if we say, — 

The king lived a year and some months in this city, 

we show that we mean only a particular king, only one year, about 
how many months, and which city. These words, the, a, some, this, 
are adjectives, because they add something to our meaning that 
was not expressed by the noun alone : but they do not tell what kind 
of king, year, month, or city, as if we were to say, — 

A good king lived a dreary year and three tiresome months in 
a hostile city. 



42 KINDS OF WORDS. 



67. Words that refer to number are of this sort; as here 



one day sixteen months first minute 

two weeks tenth hour half second 

These show to just how many or to which one the name applies ; 
and there are only about forty others, including, — 

a or an, the, every, few, same, several, 

many, any, all, first, last, this or these, 

each, either, much, no, that or those. 

68. Such adjectives, without referring to any quality, 
always add something to our meaning by showing which 
ones, or how many, and so on. Without them the mean- 
ing of a noun might be very indefinite, and so we say that 
they determine or limit the application of it. 

EXERCISE 65. 

Select the adjectives that do not describe, but only show to which 
ones or to how many the noun applies. Tell what each one limits. 

1. Eight men were on that committee. 

2. February has twenty-nine days every fourth year. 

3. Each exercise must be well written. 

4. Much harm arises from imprudence. 

5. No man knows all things. 

6. Every flock contains some black sheep. 

7. This park contains forty-four acres. 

8. All the trees in yonder row have stood there many years. 

9. Several English elms and some maples were blown down. 
10o That pond down the slope is used for skating every year. 

11. There are no shade trees on either side of that street. 

12. Few persons take much interest in such matters. 

13. Both rivers rise in the same plateau. 

14. A careless or ignorant person might improperly say "them 
books" instead of "those books." 

15. Always say " this kind," " that sort " : it is an error to say " these 
kind," " those sort." 



ADJECTIVES. 



43 



69. An Adjective is a word that may be added to a noun or 
a pronoun either to describe or to determine what it means. 

The word " adjective " means something that is added to a noun or name. 

70. Descriptive or qualifying adjectives describe what 
is mentioned. 

Limiting adjectives show which ones, hoiv many, and so 
on without describing. 

71. 1. An adjective is commonly used with nouns or 

with pronouns so as to describe what they represent, or to 
limit their application, without asserting anything ; but, — 

2. An adjective may also be used with verbs to make a 
statement about the subject. 

When any adjective referring to the subject is used with 
the verb as part of the predicate, it is called a predicate 
adjective. 

EXERCISE 66. 

1. Put all the adjectives into two lists, — one for those that de- 
scribe, and one for those that do not. 



1. We have caught a few speckled 

trout in that brook. 

2. The new yacht Louette won the 

last race. 
3 Large quantities of cotton are 
exported from this country 
each year. 

4. Carnivorous animals eat animal 

food. 

5. Herbivorous animals eat vege- 

table food. 

6. Omnivorous animals eat all 

kinds of food. 



7. Every blossom on that apple- 

tree should have five petals. 

8. The century-plant blossoms 

only once in its lifetime of 
seven to fifty years. 

9. Deciduous trees lose their foli- 

age every autumn. 

10. Evergreen trees are covered 

with foliage all the year 
round. 

11. Galls are round bodies formed 

on some plants by the stings 
of insects. 



2. What does each adjective modify? 



44 



KINDS OF WORDS. 



EXERCISE 67- 

Use with each of these nouns two adjectives, — the first telling 
which one, or how many, and so on; and the other telling the 
kind, or adding a quality. Thus : — 

" This fruitful field." 



field 


waves 


clouds 


steamer 


church 


soldiers 


medicine 


bees 


stories 


grain 


storm 


cattle 


silk 


books 


river 



EXERCISE 68. 

Make sentences, using two of these adjectives in each one: — 

each 

pleasant 

all 

coarse 



shaggy 


strange 


such 


every 


thoughtless 


any 


polite 


favorable 


some 


attentive 


noble 


careful 


selfish 


respectful 


humble 


brave 



72. Punctuation, Very often two or more adjectives 
are used with one noun, so that some punctuation is 
needed. Thus : — 

He was a large, muscular man. 
These few, scattered ruins remain. 
The day was dreary, cold, and wintry. 



Rule. — Two or more qualifying adjectives must be 
rated by commas, unless there are words between that con- 
nect them all. 



Thus, we write a large sleigh without commas, using an adjective 
of each kind, or the same sleigh, using two limiting adjectives ; but 

the same old, broken, one-seated sleigh 

needs commas between the qualifying adjectives. So in the expres- 
sion, — 

Dark, long, and weary hours. 



ADJECTIVES. 



45 



But when the adjectives are all connected, we write, — 
Bright and joyous hours. 
The hills are desolate and rugged and wild. 

EXERCISE 69. 
Put commas where they should be in the following : — 

1. All attentive studious faithful scholars — 

2. Every well-bred intelligent man — 

3. A wild barren uncultivated district — 

4. Broad well-watered fruitful plains — 

5. An honest kind and generous nature — 

EXERCISE 70. 
Which of these words are synonymous with strong; brave 
healthy; hateful; huge? — 



immense 
vigorous 
gallant 
able 



abominable 
powerful 
hale 
dauntless 



repulsive 
mighty 
fearless 
loathsome 



monstrous 


detestable 


robust 


enormous 


vast 


hearty 


potent 


courageous 



EXERCISE 71. 

Use each of these words as an adjective, and as a noun or a 
verb : — 

sound right I second 

stone I mail 



light 



spruce 
rage 



warm 
stone 



EXERCISE 72. 



Change the descriptive adjectives to others of similar meaning: — 

We saw many novel sights in this remote town. There was a 
remarkable clearness in the air, and there were lofty hills all about 
clothed with extensive forests. We were walking along a zigzag path 
towards a rather desolate spot where the yearly fair had once been 
held. The abandoned booths were vacant, but we met a numerous 
company of persons who had come a prolonged journey through these 
retired valleys on some charitable errand to the peasants. They had 
found the burning heat very disagreeable, and seemed to be tired and 
eager to rest. 



46 KINDS OF WORDS. 

TEST QUESTIONS. 

1. What is needed to make the shortest of sentences? 2. What is 
the use of adjectives? 3. Why are they so called? 4. What do they 
modify ? 5. What are the two ways of using them ? Give examples, 
using the word "great." 6. What is a predicate adjective? 7. What 
name do we give to those that are not descriptive? 8. What is the 
use of limiting adjectives? 9. Give an example of each kind. 10. 
Give a definition of adjectives. 11. When do adjectives need to be 
separated by commas? 



V. ADVERBS. 
EXERCISE 73. 



1. Which words in these sentences show when the men are to 
work ? 

2. Which tell how, or in what manner, they ought to work ? 

3. Which show where ? 

4. Which show how much? 

The men must work quietly. The men must work well. 

The men must work early. The men must work now. 

The men must work here. The men must work outside. 

The men must work less. The men must work more. 

5. Can you think of any other single words that would show how, 
or when, or where men must work ? 

73. If we should take away from the examples in Ex. 73 these 
words, quietly, early, here, less, well, now, outside, more, just the 
same thing would be asserted in every sentence. But each one of the 
words that are added to the verb makes a little change in what the 
verb alone would mean ; for they show how, when, where, and so on. 

EXERCISE 74. 

Which words are added to the verbs to show how, when, where, 
and so on ? 



ADVERBS. 



47 



1. Wait patiently. 

2. You must go now. 

3. I shall visit Europe soon. 

4. Have you ever been there ? 

5. The train runs regularly. 

6. Snow sometimes delays it. 



7. The plough soon scatters the 

snow. 

8. It was scarcely needed. 

9. The pendulum moves to and 

fro continually. 
10. The day has almost ended. 



74. Words of this sort are called Adverbs because they 
are added to verbs to make our meaning more definite, 
very much as adjectives are added to nouns and pronouns. 

EXERCISE 75. 

Fill each blank with an adverb that will tell when, where, or 
how. 

1. The girls write . 

2. We shall sing . 

3. Those yachts sail . 

4. They returned . 



We might go 



6. Our hearts beat . 

7. The river flows . 

8. The fire burns . 

9. The messenger-will return - . 

10. Can you read music ? 



EXERCISE 76. 



Mention every verb, and the adverb that modifies it, telling 
whether it shows how, when, or where. Thus : — 
The verb " must go " is modified by the adverb " now," which shows when we must go. 



5. Ke bears trouble patiently. 

6. They sometimes sing finely. 

7. The best often fail. 

8. Return quickly. 



1. We must go now. 

2. Yonder comes my father. 

3. I never called there again. 

4. Water is found everywhere 

9. The procession moved slowly onward. 

10. Our friends will probably come back to-morrow. 

11. The rain fell heavily last Tuesday. 

12. Lightning flashed vividly in the clouds. 

13. The thunder rumbled everywhere. 

14. People were running hither and thither. 

15. Umbrellas were quickly raised. 

16. Carriages dashed hurriedly along. 

17. People often hailed them. But they never stopped. 



48 KINDS OF WORDS. 

18. The streets were badly washed. 

19. Many gardens were seriously injured. 

20. Soon the clouds lifted again. The sun shone brightly. 

21. We could scarcely see the rainbow yonder. 

22. It suddenly disappeared. 

23. Birds now came forth from the bushes. They sang joyously. 

EXERCISE 77. 

Copy some of the sentences in Ex. 76, marking subject and verb, 
and putting the adverbs in brackets. Thus : — 

The procession moved [onward] [slowly]. 
75. Some of these words have another use. 

Thus, instead of — 

The hill is steep ; This book is new, — 

we should often wish to say how steep, how nearly new, and so on, 
as in — 

The hill is very steep. This book is almost new. 

The hill is less steep. This book is quite new. 

The hill is steep enough. This book is entirely new. 

The hill is steep here. This book is new now. 

But what kind of a word is steep, and what have we done to express 
our meaning more fully? 

There are modifiers for adjectives, then, just as much 
as for nouns and verbs. 

EXERCISE 78. 

First select the nouns, and say what adjectives qualify or limit 
them. Then tell which adjectives have a word added to show how or 
how much. 



1. This lesson is very short. 

2. You are extremely careless. 

3. Can you find a partly open rose ? 

4. He read an exceedingly inter- 

esting story. 



5. Oxen are rather sluggish ani- 

mals. 

6. Fred is remarkably cheerful 

this morning. 

7. Is it too difficult for you? 



Adverbs. 49 

76. Such Words we already know about : they are ad- 
verbs. The reason for using the same sort of words with 
both adjectives and verbs, is that both need to be modified 
in the same way; that is to say, by telling how, how often, 
when, ivhere, how much, hoiv little, and so on. 

EXERCISE 79. 

1. Select the adjectives in these sentences, and tell which of them 
are modified by adverbs : — 

1. The night was very dark. 

2. Everybody was sleeping soundly. 

3. The dim light of the new moon was almost entirely concealed. 

4. I was rather late about my errand. 

5. The somewhat steep path over the hill was little trodden. 

6. It was very much too rocky for so dark a night. 

7. Even the sky was nearly black. 

8. I was wisely cautious. 

9. Except for such great care I should have fallen repeatedly. 

10. I finally reached my destination in a completely exhausted 
condition. 

11. We were seriously alarmed at your long absence. 

12. Experiences of this kind are extremely unpleasant. 

13. My efforts proved to be uncommonly successful. 

2. Kead the sentences, omitting the adverbs. 

77. Sometimes, in order to show just what we mean, 
we need to modify an adverb. Thus : — 

He has come often 
may be changed to — 

He has come very often, or rather often, 
and — 

He spoke truly 

may become — 

He spoke quite truly, or more truly, or less truly. 



50 



KINDS OF WORDS. 



EXERCISE 80. 

Which words in these sentences modify adverbs ?- 



1. Speak very distinctly. 

2. James, you read too rapidly. 

3. How quietly that train runs. 

4. Water is found almost every- 

where. 



5. Kind deeds are almost never 

forgotten. 

6. Have we gone far enough? 

7. Our exercises must be more 

neatly written. 



78. Iii such sentences the words that modify adverbs 
are themselves adverbs, and could be used to modify ad- 
jectives or verbs. 

Adverbs, then, can be used in three different ways. 

79. An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjec- 
tive, or another adverb. 

EXERCISE 81. 

1. Use these adverbs in sentences to modify verbs: — 



cautiously 
faithfully 
sometimes 


seldom 
always 
forever 


often 
again 
backward 




formerly 

lately 

never 


2. Use these adverbs in sentences to modify adjectives: — 


almost 
nearly 




too 
so 


totally 
entirely 


qu 
ho 


ite 

w 



3. Use adverbs — all different — to modify the following in sen- 
tences : — 

feebly; rapidly; much; greatly; well. 

EXERCISE 82. 

1. Arrange these adverbs in five groups of four each, putting the 
synonyms together : — 



eventually 


lastly 


swiftly 


quietly 


rapidly 


quickly 


warmly 


finally 


fervently 


selfishly 


fervidly 


easily 


gently 


greedily 


meanly 


tranquilly 


ardently 


ultimately 


sordidly 


speedily 



2. From what adjectives were these adverbs made? 



PREPOSITIONS. 51 

TEST QUESTIONS. 

1. Which are the two most important kinds of words ? 2. What 
kind of words may be used in the place of nouns? 3. What kind 
modify nouns? 4. What is an adverb? 5. What is the difference 
between an adverb and an adjective? 6. What do adverbs add to 
what a verb alone would mean? 7. How do they affect the mean- 
ing of adjectives ? 8. Use one adverb to modify another. 



VI. PREPOSITIONS. 
EXERCISE 83. 



1. What is an adjective? 

2. In the expressions in the first column, what words describe 
houses? What kind of words are they? 

houses of wood. 

houses without occupants. 

houses with three stories. 



1. 


wooden houses 


or 


2. 


empty houses 


or 


3. 


three-storied houses 


or 


4. 


valuable houses 


or 


5. 


mountain houses 


or 


6. 


public houses 


or 


7. 


city houses 


or 



houses of great value. 
houses on the mountains. 
houses for the public. 
houses in the city. 

3. AVbat do the groups of words in the second column describe? 
What are they used like ? 

4. Use adjectives in place of the following italicized groups with- 
out much changing the meaning. Tell what each modifies. 

1. Business of importance detained me. 

2. Carpets from Persia are costly. 

3. We found a wagon with two seats. 

4. Men of wealth should be generous. 

EXERCISE 84. 

1. What is an adverb ? 

2. AVhat words in the first column tell how, when, or where the ship 
sails ? What kind of words are they ? 



52 KINDS OF WORDS. 

1. The ship sails rapidly or The ship sails with rapidity. 

2. The ship sails safely or The ship sails without danger. 

3. The ship sails afar or The ship sails to a distance. 

4. The ship sails now or The ship sails at this time. 

5. The ship sails there or The ship sails for that place. 
G. The ship sails away or The ship sails from home. 

7. The ship sails soon or The ship sails in tioo hours. 

3. What does each group in the second column tell about the sail- 
ing of the ship ? What does each one mean ? What are they used 
like? 

4. Use adverbs in the place of the italicized groups without much 
changing the meaning. What does each modify? 

1. The Indians lived in this place. 3. Be courteous at all times. 

2. Never write without care. 4. Do they deal upon honor f 



80. The single words that we have used to modify 
other words are adjectives or adverbs ; but we see that 
little groups of words called phrases may be used to 
modify both nouns and verbs in about the same way. 

Thus we may speak of — 

a thorny bush or a bush with thorns ; 
an English home or a home in England. 

It is easy to see that with thorns and in England are very much 
like adjectives in meaning, though they are put after the noun instead 
of before it. Again, in these sentences, — 

The letter was carefully written. It was sent promptly. 
The letter was written with care. It was sent without delay. 

the phrases with care and without delay seem to modify the verbs 
just as the adverbs carefully and promptly do. So, too, — 

The wind blew very furiously might be changed to — 
The wind blew with great fury. 

81. It very often happens that there is no adjective or 
adverb in our language that will serve as a modifier to 



PREPOSITIONS. 



53 



express our meaning, and then we are forced to use such 
phrases. 

' Here, for example, we could not possibly find a single word that 
would take the place of the phrases : — 

The house by the river is a hotel. He came from the city. 
Those on the shelf are sold. The bucket hung in the well. 

The path of industry leads to success. 

My friend was with his regiment. 

All such groups of words are called phrases because 
they are used like single words. 

We have already learned that a verb-phrase is used like a single 
verb, and we shall find that there are still other kinds of phrases. 

EXERCISE 85. 
1. Which phrases in these sentences are used like adjectives ? 



2. Do those that are used like adverbs tell how, 
how often ? 

1. He came in haste. 

2. We are in fear. 

3. People of intelligence live in 

this place. 

4. Diamonds of great value are 

found in that field. 

5. My friend never comes behind 

time. 



when, where, or 



6. He pays his rent by the month. 

7. He finished his task with ease. 

8. He came to this place after the 
time. 

9. Children like stories about 
fairies. 

10. The plan was made in secret. 

11. We shall deal upon honor. 

3. Change the phrases to adjectives or adverbs, if you can think 
of any that will serve. 



EXERCISE 86. 
1. Use a phrase instead of the adjective or adverb. 

1. Turkish rugs 5. strong men 

2. juvenile books 6. a marine disaster 

3. Java coffee 7. spoke distinctly 

4. silver plates 8. went homeward 



y. go now 

10. send it soon 

11. study diligently 

12. walk quietly 



54 KINDS OF WOUDS. 

2. Use an adjective or an adverb in place of the phrase. 



1. a road along the river 

2. a path up the mountain 
8. a man of strength 

4. a journey toward home 

5. a child at play 

6. a trip through Europe 

7. -women of fashion 

8. women of sense 



9. lands beyond the seas 

10. jewelry from France 

11. treat all with respect 

12. came to this place 

13. polite at all times 

14. speak in public 

15. behave with propriety 

16. a bird on the wing 



82. All these phrases contain a noun or a pronoun with 
a word like of, with, from, in, at, or by, that connects it 
with what is modified. These words usually come first in 
the phrase, and they are called Prepositions. 

Let us see what they do for our language that other words will 
not do. 

83. If we wished to show that a clump of trees was the place 
where some boys were hiding, we might say, — 

The boys hid in the trees. 
The boys hid under the trees. 
The boys hid among the trees. 
The boys hid behind the trees. 
The boys hid beyond the trees. 

The only difference is in the prepositions in, under, among, etc. 
Read the sentences without them, and you will see that nobody could 
tell what the tree$ had to do with the hiding ; but with the preposi- 
tions we see that the word "trees" can be used to modify "hid" in 
various ways ; for it is one thing to hide under the trees, another to 
hide in the trees, and so on. 

EXERCISE 87. 
Select the phrases and tell what each one modifies. Thus : — 

"From Plymouth " is a phrase used like an adverb to modify the verb " sailed." 

1. The Mayflower sailed from Plymouth. 

2. Magellan's ship sailed around the globe. 



PREPOSITIONS. 55 

' 3. Beautiful pearls are found in the sea. 

4. The early settlers hunted for gold. 

5. The star rested over Bethlehem. 

6. The English settled along the coast. 

7. We shall return through the valley. 

8. My friends will come in the next train. 

9. Garfield lived in Ohio during his boyhood. 
10. Jso one should be condemned without a trial. 

84. Using a phrase as an adjective, we might say, — 

The land around the grove. The shade of the grove . 

The walk from the grove. The road to the grove. 

The path through the grove. 

Here we modify or explain the meaning of the nouns walk, land, 
shade, etc., by referring to the grove; bnt in order to do this we have 
to use a different preposition in each expression. 

Read the examples both with and without the prepositions, and 
notice how necessary they are to connect the other words and show 
what they have to do with each other. 

85. To show how one word can modify another, or 
what the meanings of two words have to do with each 
other, is to show the relation between them. 

EXERCISE 88. 
Select the phrases and tell what each one modifies. Thus : — 

" Of Rome " is a phrase used as an adjective to modify the noun " city." 

1. The city of Borne is the capital of Italy. 

2. The road up the mountain is- very rocky. 

3. Goods for that firm were shipped yesterday. 

4. The planet with the rings is Saturn. 

5. Admission to college depends on attainments. 

6. The town beyond Lexington is Concord. 

7. Success without effort is impossible. 

8. The fort near the city was captured first. 

9. Icebergs from the Arctic Ocean melt in the Gulf Stream. 
10. Journeys into the interior are rarely made. 



56 KINDS OF WORDS. 

80. A Preposition is a relation-word used with a noun or 
a pronoun to make a phrase having the use of an adjective or an 
adverb. 

The word " preposition " means toliat is placed before. 

87. The noun or pronoun used with a preposition to 
make a phrase is called the Object of the preposition. 

88. A Prepositional Phrase is one that contains a 
preposition and its object. 

EXERCISE 89. 

1. Select the prepositions in Exs. 87 and 88, and tell between 



\Y 



hat words each shows the relation. Thus: 



• "From" is a preposition, and shows the relation between its object "Plymouth" 
and the verb "sailed," which the phrase modifies. 

2. Mention the prepositions with the object of each, and tell 
whether the phrase is used as an adjective or an adverb. 

1. Birds in great numbers fly over this grove. 2. Some with blue 
plumage have dropped a handful of feathers for me. 3. Quails from 
the north meet jays from the south. 4. There are eggs in the nest 
near the vine. 5. The mother bird is mottled at the throat and along 
the breast. 6. A bluebird nests under the eaves. 

89. Since prepositional phrases can be used wherever 
an adverb can be, we find them modifying not only 
nouns, pronouns, and verbs, but adjectives and adverbs 
also. Thus : — 

He was happy to excess, or He was excessively happy. 

They are ripe before the time, or They are prematurely ripe. 

In other cases it is harder to find what will take the place of the 

phrase. As : — 

This breeze is fresh from the ocean. 

We are weary with working. 
Here the four phrases modify adjectives as adverbs would. 



PREPOSITIONS. 



57 



EXERCISE 90. 

Point out the prepositional phrases, and tell whether they modify 
adjectives or adverbs. 



1. Those trees are heavy with fruit. 

2. You are too cautious for me. 

3. The children were happy be- 

yond measure. 

4. Always be polite to strangers. 



5. She is insane from anxiety. 

6. Shall you be absent from home? 

7. TVe found rosebuds pink at the 

tips. 

8. The grass was wet with dew. 



EXERCISE 91. 

1. Point out the subject and the verb in each sentence. 

2. Select the adjectives and tell what each modifies. 

3. What does each adverb modify ? 

4. Read the prepositional phrases, tell how each one is used, 
and what it modifies. 

1. The first voyage around the world was made by a Portuguese ship. 

2. The rays of the sun fall most obliquely in the winter. 

3. A great swarm of locusts came up suddenly from the meadow. 

4. Volcanoes are always situated near the sea-coast. 

5. All the planets move around the sun from west to east. 

5. Mention the prepositions, and tell the words between which 
each shows the relation. 

EXERCISE 92. 

1. Use these phrases in sentences : — 



with him 




against it 




to you 






by her 




between us 




for whom 




after me 




behind them 




from him 




2. Here are the most common prepositions. Use each one in 


a 


sentence. 








about 


around 


beyond 


of 


under 




above 


at 


by 


on 


unto 




across 


before 


down 


over 


up 




after 


behind 


for 


through 


upon 




against 


below 


from 


till 


with 




along 


beneath 


in 


to 


within 




among 


between 




into 


tow 


ard 


without 





58 KINDS OF WORDS. 

TEST QUESTIONS. 

1. What is an adjective? 2. An adverb? 3. What maybe used 
instead of adjectives and adverbs? 4. What is a preposition ? 5. A 
prepositional phrase ? 6. The object of a preposition ? 7. What is it 
to show the relation between words ? 8. Use a preposition to connect 
a verb and a pronoun ; a noun and another noun ; an adjective and a 
noun. 



VII. CONJUNCTIONS. 

00. We have learned that a preposition connects two other words 
by showing what one of them has to do with the other. 

We now come to words that connect in a different way. 

In the sentence, — 

The sun sets and the moon appears, 

how many verbs are there? What is the subject of each? Read the 
sentence, omitting the word and. 

Here, then, are two sentences joined or tied together as 
one sentence. They might have been printed thus : — 

The sun sets. The moon appears. 
So we might unite three or more sentences in one ; as, — 
The sun sets, (and) the moon appears, and the stars come out , 
or we. might connect two sentences in different ways ; as, — 

The sun has set, and the stars appear. 
The sun has set, for the stars appear. 
The sun has set, but the stars appear. 
The sun has set, therefore the stars appear. 

And seems to join the sentences together, as if they were about 
one subject; for shows that one statement gives a reason for making 
the other ; and so on with other words of this sort, such as but, there- 
fore, or, nor 9 hence, however. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 59 

91. There are not very many of these words, and as 
they all connect or join together what we say, they are 
called Conjunctions. 

They all denote different relations between the expres- 
sions they connect, by showing what the connected parts 
have to do with each other. But, unlike prepositions, 
they always connect expressions of the same sort. 

EXERCISE 93. 
What sentences have been united to make the following? 

1. The birds have come and the flowers appear. 

2. The ocean is rough for the breakers roar. - 

3. My pears are ripe and I am glad. 

4. Some are very large but they are not yellow. 

5. Imports are brought into the country but exports are sent 
out of it. 

6. You cannot have tried earnestly or you would have succeeded. 

7. You must save your money or sometime you will need it. 

8. The sky seems clear yet no stars are visible. 

9. This boat must carry us over else we cannot go. 

10. We cannot get money nor have we any food. 

11. The king must win or he must forfeit his crown forever. 

92. Such sentences as the preceding differ from those 
we have been studying ; for they are made up of tivo or 
more simple sentences combined. Instead of one predicate 
and the subject of it, they have two or more predicates 
each with a subject of its own ; and so the whole can be 
divided into shorter sentences. 

EXERCISE 94. 

Copy the sentences in the preceding exercise. Place vertical lines 
before and after each conjunction, and mark each subject and each 
verb. Enclose adjectives and phrases that modify the subject, in 



60 KINDS OF WORDS. 

curves ; enclose adverbs and phrases that modify the verb, in brack- 
ets. Insert the comma where it belongs. Thus : — 

(Kind) friends have left us, | but | they will return [soon]. 

93. Sentences made in this way, by uniting two or 
more simple sentences, are called compound. 

94. A Simple Sentence is a sentence that contains only one 
subject and one predicate. 

95. A Compound Sentence is one formed by uniting inde- 
pendent sentences. 

The sentences united to form a compound sentence are 
called its members. 

96. Punctuation* Rule. — When the members of a 
compound sentence are connected by a conjunction, they 
must generally be separated by a comma to show that the 
conjunction does not join two words. Thus : — 

There were wheels to the cart, and the axles were strong. 

EXERCISE 95. 

Make compound sentences by uniting simple ones that have the 
following words as subjects. Punctuate carefully. 



1. New York — San Francisco. 

2. horses — camels. 

3. water — alcohol. 



4. lead — cork. 

5. skating — tennis. 

6. silk — linen. 



97. Conjunctions are used to connect not only sen- 
tences, but also words or expressions in the same sentence 
when they are of the same kind and used in the same way. 

1. Two or more nouns or pronouns may be connected in 
one sentence ; as in, — 



CONJUNCTIONS. 61 

Music and painting are fine arts. 

We import cotton, coffee, and diamonds from Brazil. 

You and I will visit the museum. 

Did you ask him or her or me ? 

2. Several ver&s may be joined together in one sen- 
tence ; as in, — ■ 

All the children sing and dance. 

Farmers raise and sell vegetables for the market. 

3. So, too, we may wish to unite two or more adjectives 
or adverbs or phrases that modify the same word ; as in, — 

The dead or dying soldiers were left behind. 
She walks gracefully and firmly, but very slowly. 
The volume is in the book-case or on the table. 

EXERCISE 96. 
Select the conjunctions, telling which words they connect and 
what kind of words are connected. Thus : — 

" And " is a conjunction, and connects the two nouns " time" and " tide." 

1. Time and tide wait for no man. 

2. Extreme poverty or great wealth may bring fame. 

3. There health and plenty cheered the laboring swain. 

4. Horatius and his two companions kept the bridge. 

5. Some trees or shrubs would improve the place. 

G. An honest face and a clear conscience go together. 

7. The days come and go in a ceaseless round. 

8. The old ship strains and tosses in the storm. 

9. Some people always promise, but never pay. 

10. Who among you thinks or dreams of me ? 

11. All men live and die unknown by most of their fellows. 

12. She plucked the daisies white and violets blue. 

13. Michael Angelo was a painter and sculptor. 

14. Bring some roses or a pot of tulips. 

15. Every leaf and every flower looks fresh and bright. 

16. The heat drives us to the hills or to the sea. 

17. The story was long but interesting. 

18. Now and then the whip-poor-will calls from the hill or the grove. 



62 KINDS OF WORDS, 

19. The river may be forded above or below the bridge. 

20. You and I are old and well-tried friends. 

21. Shall we spend our time over worthless books and papers, or 
with the best authors? 

98. A Conjunction is a word that connects sentences or 
parts of sentences. 

The word ,{ conjunction " means that which joins together. 

99. Punctuation, Rule. — Two or more words or 
phrases of the same kind used in the same way should 
be separated by commas, unless conjunctions are used to 
connect them all. 

Thus : — 

Clergymen, lawyers, and doctors preach, argue, or heal. 

But in the sentence — 

We met them in Pittsburg and in Detroit and in Chicago, 

each phrase is connected to the following one by a conjunction, and 
no commas are needed. [See § 72.] 

EXERCISE 97. 

1. Write simple sentences containing the following groups of 
words : — 

red patient safely 

white firm quickly 

blue kind pleasantly 

2. Write a complete sentence in answer to each question. Punc- 
tuate carefully. 

1. Who were the first three presidents of the United States? 

2. What kinds of grain grow in the Mississippi Valley? 

3. What are three of the duties of a sailor ? 

4. What must be done to corn in the field before it becomes meal ? 

5. Of what materials is cloth made? 

6. What qualities must a thing have that it may affect the sense 
of taste? 



he fly 

you walk 

I swim 



INTERJECTIONS. 63 

TEST QUESTIONS. 

1. What are simple sentences? 2. How may they be united? 
8. Into what kind of sentences? 4. What besides sentences do 
conjunctions connect? 5. What is meant by the members of a com- 
pound sentence ? 6. Define a compound sentence. 7. Give a rule for 
using the comma in a compound sentence. 8. Write a simple sen- 
tence that requires two commas. 9. Name five common conjunctions. 



VIII. INTERJECTIONS. 

100. The seven kinds of words that we have now 
learned to distinguish make up all our sentences: for 
every word that is really part of a sentence is either a 
noun, a pronoun, a verb, an adjective, an adverb, a prepo- 
sition, or a conjunction. 

There are other words, however, that we use with sen- 
tences, but not exactly as parts of them. They are a 
different kind of language. 

Thus, if any one says — 

Oh! you hurt me, 

the word oh is apt to be very much like a groan. So in — 

Aha ! I have found you ! 

aha takes the place of a shout ; and in the following sentences, — 

Pshaw! what a silly reason ! 
Poh ! that's nothing. 
He came, alas ! too late. 

the words pshaw, poh, and alas are about as expressive as a hiss, 
a puff, and a sigh. 

101. When we use these words we do not assert any- 
thing, and very much of our meaning comes from the tone 



64 KINDS OF WORDS. 

in which we speak : but everybody understands at once 
that we are pained or pleased, and so on, just as we tell by 
a dog's whining whether he is grieved or delighted. 

We must notice, however, that instead of making natural sounds 
to show our feelings, as animals do, we use words that are somewhat 
like such sounds, and which mean the same thing. 

EXERCISE 98. 

Which words would express feeling, even if used by themselves ? 



1. Oh ! I have ruined my friend ! 

2. O that I were rich again ! 

3. Ha ! Can you not hear it V 



4. Ho ho ! Ahoy ! A sail! A sail ! 

5. Hurrah ! We've won a victory. 

6. Hist ! The squirrel sees you. 



102. Such words are called Interjections because they 
are thrown into the midst of what we say without having 
much to do with other words. 

103. A different sort of interjection is used in expres- 
sions like this : — 

Bang ! There goes another gun ! 
where the word bang is used merely to imitate a noise. 

When we wish to represent these words by writing, we spell out 
the sounds as nearly as we can, just as we write how-wow to represent 
the bark of a dog. 

104. An Interjection is an exclamatory word or phrase 
used to express a feeling or a wish or to imitate some sound. 

The word "interjection" means soniething that is throion into the midst of what 
we say. 

105. Punctuation. Rule. — An interjection should be 
followed by an exclamation-point when it expresses very 
strong emotion, or when there would be a distinct pause 
in speaking. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 65 

EXERCISE 99. 
1. Which of the following interjections can be used to express 
joy"? Which to express disgust? Which imitate some natural sound? 



bravo I fie | O dear 

whoa hollo ha ha ha 



alas I hurrah 

pshaw | ahoy 

2. Use each of them in a sentence. If written, punctuate carefully. 



SUMMARY: THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

106. All the words in our language can be divided 
into these eight classes : — 

1. Nouns | used tQ name ^ 

2 Pronouns J P<™* or thi »g s [ are always required 
A. ^onoimsj * f to make a sentence. 

3. Verbs — used to assert I 



4 - Ad i™t ives | uged Qnly tQ modify 
5. Adverbs J other words 

6 - P^POsitions \ ged tQ ghow the connec _ 
7. Conjunctions/^^ between other words 



may help 
J> to form 
sentences. 



Q T , . . . f used to express ) often stand 
8. Interjections < r V 

( jeeling J by themselves. 

Speaking of them by kinds or by classes in this way, we 
call them the eight Parts of Speech. 

About Interjections, however, we must remember that 
though they help to form our language, they are very 
different from all the other kinds of words; are not parts 
of sentences ; and are often used by themselves. 



Q6 KINDS OF WORDS. 

REVIEW EXERCISE. 100. 

1. Read every sentence given below and tell of what kind it is. 

2. Which are made of two or three sentences put together? Which 
words would you omit to make them seem quite separate? What 
punctuation would you then put between them ? 

3. Try to explain the use of each punctuation mark on this page. 

4. Read the subject of every sentence, and make a new predicate 
if you can. 

5. Mention eight words belonging each to a different part of 
speech. 

6. To what part of speech does "still" belong in Nos. 5-9? 

7. Name the part of speech to which each word belongs. 

8. Collect in a list all words that are of the same kind. 

9. Find eleven phrases that do the work of adjectives or of adverbs. 
10. Try to change the order of words in Nos. 4 and 9. 

1. How the wind whirls the leaves along the road. 

2. Hark ! what hollow bellowings this dark abyss breathes forth. 

3. No sun, no moon, nor any stars pierce such a depth of gloom. 

4. Down came snow-flakes feathery, then roared the wintry wind, 
and over the ground like waves and hills lay snowy ridge and mound. 

5. The captains come and still that noisy crowd. 

6. See the steam from the still, for it rises straight in the air to-day. 

7. Are they so still in yonder room, or are they only fast asleep? 

8. You look still better in your bonny gown. 

9. O, still they come, and still we go; but the far, bright stars 
change never. 

10. I said to them here by the brook last May : 

" Speak, my marigolds ; tell me true, — 
Who put the gold in the sand for you? 
How did you draw it through such long stems ? " 

Golden petals with dew for gems 

Fell and slowly sailed away ; 

Zephyr wrecked them. — Again they're here. 

Where think you they spent the year ? 



CHAPTER V. 

SENTENCE-BUILDING. 
A. INCOMPLETE VERBS AND THEIR COMPLEMENTS. 

EXERCISE 101. 

1. (a) What must the subject of a sentence contain ? (b) What 
must the predicate contain ? (c) Define a verb, (d) A verb-phrase, 
(e) How may verbs be modified ? 

2. In six of these sentences the meaning is complete. Which are 
they ? Read the remaining six, supplying with each verb what is 
needed to complete the meaning. 



1. The wind changed 

2. The air is 

3. My friend called 

4. The skating will be 



We must hurry 
The ice was 
The snow melted 
Our fun stopped 



9. We were 

10. The night has been 

11. The gale increased 

12. Such storms are 



3. Which of the verbs would you call incomplete ? Give your reason. 



107. An Incomplete Verb is one that requires the 
addition of another word, called the complement, to give 
the sentence meaning. 

EXERCISE 102. 

Point out the verb, and show what completes the meaning. 



1. Game was scarce. 

2. Our powder was wet. 

3. We were hungry. 

4. The pond was frozen. 



5. Our hotel was distant. 

6. Our lunch-boxes were empty. 

7. Matters might have been worse. 

8. We were not disheartened. 



68 



SENTENC E-BUILDING. 



1. Copulative Verbs. 



108. In each of these sentences, — 



I am cold. 
He was asleep. 
They were ill. 
She is happy. 



You are generous. 
He slept. 
They suffered. 
He smiles. 



what is the complete predicate? In those of three words, does the 
verb or the adjective tell us more about the subject? In those of 
two words, what describes the subject ? 

Each of the verbs slept, suffered, smiles, is enough to 
give us some information ; but the verbs — 
am, was, were, is, are, 

only begin to tell us something that is expressed mostly 
by the adjectives. Of course there is no assertion without 
the verb ; but in He was asleep, the adjective, being the 
word that describes trie subject, is so important, that the 
verb seems incomplete without it. The two words together 
— was asleep — are very much like the single verb in He 
slept, for that means about the same thing. 

EXERCISE 103. 

1. (a) Select the verbs, and tell which of them are modified by 
adverbs or prepositional phrases. (b) Which are incomplete, and 
what complements are added to them to describe the subject? 



1. Some grapes are sweet. 

2. They grow in the south. 

3. The wind will be cold. 

4. Celluloid is inflammable. 

5. Winter begins in December. 

6. His remarks were instructive. 

7. Not all birds are migratory. 

8. The wind sighs plaintively 

around her grave. 



9. Delays are often dangerous. 

10. The crocus blooms in the 

spring. 

11. The early laws were severe. 

12. My requests for dismissal have 

been useless. 

13. The whole country is fertile. 

14. The polar regions are unin- 

habitable. 



COPULATIVE VERBS. 69 

2. Copy the preceding sentences, placing under the subject a icavy 
line, under the verb a straight line, and under the complement a 
straight line over a wavy line. Thus : — 

Some grapes are sweet. 

109. In the sentences, — 

The story seems doubtful. The clouds look stormy. 

The owl appears wise. 

we see incomplete verbs that by themselves have a little 
more meaning than the ones we have been studying, 
such as — 

am, is, are, was, were, will be, have been, etc. 

But each of these verbs serves principally to connect 
or couple the subject with what describes or qualifies it, 
and so they are all called Copulative verbs. 

There are not many of them, but they are very frequently used. 

110. In the sentences, — 

Those men were soldiers. Boys may be heroes. 

Harrisburg is the capital. Our guide will be an Indian. 

what kind of word is added to the verb to describe the subject? 
What two words in each sentence name the same person or thing ? 

We see that a noun, as well as an adjective, may be 
used with the verb as a sort of second name, to describe 
the subject, or explain what is meant. 

111. A noun used as complement with a copulative 
verb is called a predicate noun. 

EXERCISE 104. 

1. Point out the copulative verb with its subject and comple- 
ment, telling whether the latter is a noun or an adjective. Thus : — 



70 



SENTENCE-BUILDING. 



In the second sentence " was " is the copulative verb, having the noun " trouble " for 
its subject, and the noun " poverty " for its complement. 

1. 



The man was poor. 

2. His trouble was poverty. 

3. The water of the ocean is salt. 

4. Yonder vessel must be a 

schooner. 

5. Farmers are independent. 

6. Every barrel seems full. 

7. Diamonds are costly. 

8. Pure air is exhilarating. 

9. Quartz is a mineral. 

10. Our friends look anxious. 

11. The lecture to-morrow will be 

short. 



12. The cat's claws were sharp. 

13. Turtles are amphibious. 

14. The ship of the desert is the 

camel. 

15. Tigers are carnivorous. 

16. Tigers are flesh-eaters. 

17. Henrietta shall be queen. 

18. The boy is the shoemaker's 

best friend. 

19. Idle boys become poor men. 

20. The sound of the evening bells 

was sweet. 



21. The night grows dark. 

2. Copy those of the preceding sentences that have nouns as com- 
plements. Underline subject and verb as heretofore, and under the 
noun complement place a wavy line over a straight line. Thus : — 

Yonder vessel is a schooner. 



112. A Copulative verb is one that has a complement de- 
scribing the subject. 

The word " copulative" means coupling or connecting. 

EXERCISE 105. 

Write sentences having the following words as complements of 
copulative verbs. Use the marking as in preceding exercises. 



mineral 


old-fashioned 


fatigued 


Frenchman 


combustible 


mechanic 


librarian 


skilful 


liquid 


ingenious 


Japanese 


patriot 



2. Transitive Verbs. 
EXERCISE 106. 

1. Try to complete the sentences that seem unfinished, and ex- 
plain why they seem so. 



TRANSITIVE VERBS. 



71 



1. It is raining 

2. Who opened 

3. We can look for eggs 

4. Come to the barn 

5. I will bring 

6. We shall easily find 

2. Do any of them lack the verb ? 



7. The nests are in the hay 



8. Yesterday I had a fall 

9. Somebody fired 

10. I was frightened 

11. Of course I broke 

12. The fall almost killed 

What kind of word is needed? 



EXERCISE 107. 
1. Give the complete predicate of each of these sentences 



1. The bright sun rises. 

2. The March winds blow. 

3. A robin sings on the bough. 

4. The lilacs blossom. 

5. The weather was mild. 

6. The skies are clear. 



7. The trees shed their leaves. 

8. Farmers sell butter. 

9. Hail destroys the crops. 

10. The archer bends the bow. 

11. The ground looks white. 

12. Our summer is over. 



2, (a) Which of these verbs assert that the subject does some- 
thing, or performs some action ? (&) Which represent the subject as 
doing something to a person or to anything else? (c) What action is 
asserted of the winds ? (d) Of a robin ? (e) What word in the ninth 
sentence tells what the hail does f (f) What does the hail act upon ? 
(h) Who performs the action of bending? ({) What object receives 
the action ? (j) What is the object of " shed " ? (k) Of « sell " ? 



EXERCISE 108. 

Give the object of these verbs , that is, tell what receives the 
action : — 



1. I have sold my yacht. 

2. He has bought a farm. 

3. Who wrote the prescription ? 

4. The Pilgrims left their native 

land. 



5. They founded a new nation. 

6. The engine has broken a rail. 

7. Who will take the tickets ? 

8. We cannot speak French. 

9. Ask the meaning of the word. 



113. In nearly, all the sentences in Ex. 107, the verb 



72 SENTENCE-BUILDING. 

alone gives considerable information about the subject; 
but yet it would seem very incomplete to say, — 
The trees shed. Farmers sell. Hail destroys. 

for any one would wait to hear what the trees shed, what 
the farmers sell, and so on. 

We see, then, that there are still other verbs, such as shed, 
sell, destroys, bends, that we must call incomplete, since they 
have so much need of an object to till out the meaning. 

114. These verbs assert that the subject performs some 
action that passes over to and affects something else. The 
complement shows who or what it is that receives this ac- 
tion. So they are called Transitive — which means "pass- 
ing over." 

115. We cannot tell whether a verb is transitive or not except by 
its use, for sometimes the verb without an object expresses as much 
as we wish to say, or else it has a different meaning. 

EXERCISE 109. 

Tell whether the verb is transitive or intransitive ; i.e., whether 
it has an object or not. 



1. That blind man never saw. 

2. I saw my friend on his return. 

3. The bells ring merrily over the 

snow. 

4. The sexton rings the bell. 

5. The trees sway in the wind. 

6. How the wind sways the trees ! 



7. Our national flag flies from the 

mast-head. 

8. The schooner in the offing flies 

a signal of distress. 

9. The farmer ploughs his fields. 
10. The ships plough through the 

waves. 



116. A Transitive verb is one that has a complement show- 
ing who or what receives the action. 

117. The complement of a transitive verb is called its 
Object. 



COMPLETE VERBS. 73 

118. Copulative and transitive verbs are the only ones 
that always need complements. Most others are complete 
in themselves. 

If we say, — 

The sun rises. The lilacs blossom. 

the idea is complete without adding anything ; for nobody could ask 
what the sun rises, or what the lilacs blossom. The rising or the blos- 
soming does not necessarily affect anything else. 

EXERCISE 110. 

1. (a) In the following sentences, which verbs assert an action 
that is complete in itself? (b) Which assert actions performed 
on or received by some person or thing? Give their complements. 

5. Perseverance brings success. 

6. Sugar grows in Louisiana. 



7. Old Ironsides at anchor lay. 

8. Many fruits ripen in September. 



1. The morning dawned. 

2. The bridge fell at noon. 

3. The choppers fell the trees. 

4. The hunter lost the trail. 

9. Our expected friends have arrived. 

10. The angry man should control his passion. 

11. We should hide the faults of others. 

12. The grass withers, and the flowers fade. 

13. Time and tide wait for no man. 

14. The first gun at Sumter aroused the nation. 

15. The melancholy days have come. 

16. The city of Florence contains many palaces. 

17. The farmers sow their seed in the spring. 

18. If you plant in youth, you will reap in age. 

19. He will spend the winter in Spain. 

20. The fire in the woods burned for several days. 

21. A fearful gale blew the ship out of its course. 

2. Copy some of the preceding sentences, marking the subject and 
the verb as before. Under the object draw two straight lines ; thus, — 

The choppers fell the trees. 



119. A Complete verb is one that requires no complement* 



74 



SENTENCE-BUILDING. 



EXERCISE III. 

1. Use the following in sentences, first as complete verbs, and 
then as transitive verbs, as in Ex. 109 : — 



write 
rides 



set 
succeed 



reap 
learns 



cheat 

lose 



give 
sail 



2. Select the verbs in Exs. 62 and 66, and tell whether they are 
complete, copulative, or transitive, and why. 

EXERCISE 112. 

1. Construct sentences, using the following as subjects of com- 
plete verbs : — 



lightning 
moon 



time I spiders 

clocks I petroleum 

2. Use the following as subjects of transitive verbs : — 



war 
smoke 



reporters 
electricity 



avalanche 
physicians 



artists 
bankers 



locomotives 
earthquakes 



3. Use the same words as objects of transitive verbs. 

4. Write five sentences containing copulative verbs with adjec- 
tives as complements. 

5. Write five with noun complements. 



3. Complements. 

120. We have learned that there are two kinds of 
complements : — 

I. The complement of a copulative verb refers to the 
subject, and is called a Subjective Complement. 

Any word or phrase that cau modify a noun or a pronoun may be a 
subjective complement ; as, — 

Some plants are poisonous, (adjective) 

Your friends are musicians, (noun) 

It cannot have been he. (pronoun) 

Time is of great value. (phrase) 



COMPLEMENTS. 75 

121. II. The complement of a transitive verb is the 
Object of it, and has nothing to do with the subject of 
the sentence, but only with the verb. 

(a) Any noun or pronoun may be used with a transitive verb as the 
object of it. 

(b) As adverbs and other expressions modify the verb by answering 
the questions how, when, where, etc., so the object answers the question 
what. Objects are the most important and necessary kind of modi- 
fiers, and this explains why they are called complements of the verb. 

122. A Complement is what must be added to an 
incomplete verb to give meaning to the sentence. 

EXERCISE 113. 

Select the complements of the verbs, and tell whether they are 
objects or subjective complements ; that is, whether they describe the 
subject or only modify the verb. 

. I can find no fault with him. 



1. Rivers to the ocean run. 

2. The reason is very plain. 

3. The stars look very small. 

4. Our souls are immortal. 



. A long rain will be welcome. 
. Xo one is ever too old to learn. 
. Every day brings its own duties. 
9. Good habits are most easily formed in youth. 

10. We are the heirs of past generations. 

11. A man's actions show his character. 

12. The greatest English poet is Shakespeare. 

13. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 

14. The betrayer of his country is a traitor. 

15. Every man must educate himself. 

16. Agriculture is the parent of all industries. 

17. Mountain chains rob the winds of their moisture. 

18. Wisdom's ways are ways of pleasantness. 

19. The violets open their soft blue eyes. 

20. Of all our senses sight is the most important. 

21. In France and Germany sugar is made from beets. 

22. Despatch is the soul of business. 



76 SENTENCE-BUILDING. 

B. THE BASE OF A SENTENCE. 

123. The materials that we must have for making 
the shortest of sentences are — a subject with a noun or 
a pronoun in it; and 'a predicate with a verb in it. 

(a~) Two words are required ; something talked about, 
and something said ; as, — 

Night comes. Hope departs. Life ends. 
Look you! Who calls? 

(5) But when the verb is incomplete, that is, when the 
sentence would be almost meaningless without some other 
word in the predicate, then three words at least are re- 
quired; as, — 
We are children. Youth is hopeful. Love makes friends. 

(c) When instead of a verb we have a verb-phrase, the 
number of essential words may be still larger ; as, — 
Drinking may have caused death. 

124. In every simple sentence there are these two or 
three foundation elements, upon which all the rest is built 
up, and which we call the Base. 

125. The Base of a Sentence, or what it needs more 
than anything else to give it meaning, consists either of 
two parts or elements : — 

Subject, Complete Verb ; 

or of three parts : — 

c t • ^ i +• ■«■ t. ( Subjective 

Subject, Copulative Verb, < 

( Complement; or, 

Subject, Transitive Verb, Object. 



BASE OF A SENTENCE. 77 

EXERCISE 114. 

1. Read the base of each sentence, or mark it by underlining its 
elements in this way : — 

Under the subject draw a wavy line 

Under the verb draw a straight line 

Under the object draw two straight lines 



Under the subjective complement draw a straight line with a 
wavy line — 

Under it for adjectives ^^^^^ — ; 

Over it for nouns or pronouns . Thus: — 

The sun always shines somewhere. 
Your favor will be very acceptable. 

1900 will not be a leap-year. 

The sentinel stars set their watch in the sky. 



1. Our good deeds live after us. 

2. Seconds are the gold-dust of time. 

3. The orbit of the earth is elliptical. 

4. An artist's studio should be his workroom. 

5. He mixes his paints on a palette. 

6. Vaccination may prevent the small-pox. 

7. Most male citizens over twenty-one can vote. 

8. At sea the distant clouds seem low. 

9. The old mayor climbed the belfry tower. 

10. Joan of Arc perished at the stake. 

11. Regret for a misspent past will be useless. 

12. My workmen were once my employers. 

13. A collection of curiosities may become a museum. 

14. The miser willed his property to a college. 

15. Stone walls do not a prison make. 

16. Young hearts never grow old. 

17. Foolish people often feel wise. 

18. The Muses were the goddesses of art. 

2. Treat other exercises in the same way, until the base of a sen- 
tence can be recognized and described very readily. 



78 SENTENCE-BUILDING. 

C. MODIFIERS. 

EXERCISE 115. 

1. What is a sentence? An assertion? What are the essential 
parts of one ? 

2. How many and what kinds of words must be used to make an 
assertion ? 

3. Illustrate from these sentences the meaning of "subject," 
"verb," "complement," "base,"- "modifier," and "adjective." 

Cowardly men are generally poor soldiers. 
These fine steamers now make regular trips. 

4. What kind of steamers is meant? Which ones? 

5. What words modify the verbs ? What word describes the trips? 

6. How would you say the subject and the object are modified ? 

126. Sometimes our sentences consist of only the two 
or three words that we have called the base : but generally 
we find it necessary to modify some part of the base in 
order to express our meaning exactly. 

Thus, instead of " Sheep furnish wool," or " They came," we might 
wish to say, "My son's sheep, a foreign breed, furnish wool of fine 
quality" or " They unexpectedly came yesterday \ from town | to welcome 
us." 

127. Any word or group of words that qualifies another 
word, or explains its application, is called a Modifier. 

By adding modifiers to the base, we build up fuller sentences, and 
it is about the construction or building up of sentences that we 
are to study now. 

1. Adjectives as Modifiers. 

128. We know that the subject, the object, and some- 
times the subjective complement, is a noun or a pronoun, 
and that adjectives may modify nouns wherever they 
occur; hence we conclude that — 



ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS. 79 

Adjectives may be added to either the subject or the 
complement as modifiers. Thus : — 

Australian sheep furnish fine wool. 

These | black sheep furnish some | valuable wool. 

Glass is a brittle, transparent substance. 

EXERCISE 116. 

1. (a) Classify each sentence; that is, tell its kind. (&) Read 
the base, (c) Point out the subject and its modifiers, (d) Point 
out the verb. (<?) Point out the complement, tell its kind, and 
give its modifiers. Thus : — 

The first is a simple, assertive sentence. Its base is dogs respect masters. The sub- 
ject dogs is modified by the adjective savage. The verb is respect. The object masters 
is modified by the adjective stem. 



1. Savage dogs respect stern 

masters. 

2. Coming events cast long- 

shadows. 

3. Has any man a heavy coat? 

4. Take the broad, open path. 

5. Such long journeys are tire- 

some. 

6. A low barometer indicates 

stormy weather. 

7. Hidden fire makes black 

smoke. 



8. An uncontrolled appetite is a 

relentless master. 

9. The Polish salt mines seem 

inexhaustible. 

10. The longest day has an end. 

11. Your barking dogs are cow- 

ardly. 

12. Destructive freshets have in- 

jured the late crops. 

13. Is that snow-capped mountain 

an extinct volcano ? 

14. Tell no long stories. 



2. Copy the preceding sentences, and mark the • base as before. 
Enclose each subject-modifier in curves ( ), and each complement- 
modifier in angles ( ). 1 Thus: — 

(These) sheep have (long) horns. 

1 To the Teacher. — This simple method of marking the analysis of sentences will 
be found very useful in ordinary written work, as well as in illustrative blackboard 
exercises. 

Every subject is to be marked with a wavy line, every verb with a straight line. 
The complement is always marked with two lines, — both also straight for the object, 



since that modifies only the verb; but one of them wavy for the subjective complement, 



80 



SENTENCE-BUILDING. 



3. Write sentences to show the use of adjectives as part of the base. 

4. Write six that illustrate their use as modifiers of different parts 
of the base. 

2. Adverbs as Modifiers. 

129. Besides a noun or a pronoun, the base of a sen- 
tence always, as we know, contains a verb, and it some- 
times contains an adjective as the complement of the verb. 
We know, too, that if a verb or an adjective needs a modi- 
fier to finish the meaning, an Adverb may be used. E.g. : — 

The man approached cautiously. 
Children sometimes make mistakes. 

where the verbs are modified ; and — 

Some pine trees are perfectly straight. 
The old elm was almost dead. 

where the adjective complements are modified. 



EXERCISE 117. 
1. Point out the principal parts of each sentence and their modi- 
fiers, as in the preceding exercise. 



1. All the bells ring mournfully. 

2. Some faces look very sad. 

3. The whistle always shrieks 

wildly. 

4. The summons is quite welcome. 

5. This spot is delightfully cool. 

6. Such bright days rarely come. 

7. The officers were criminally 

negligent. 



8. He probably came here lately. 

9. Those stories are hardly cred- 

ible. 

10. The sun always shines brightly 

somewhere. 

11. Most early navigators were 

very venturesome. 

12. I have been too idle hereto- 

fore. 



since that is not only a part of the predicate, hut is also related to the subject. The 
predicate noun is distinguished from the predicate adjective by placing the wavy line 
first. 

Every subject-modifier of whatever kind is to be enclosed in curves ( ), every \erb- 
modifier in brackets [ ], and every complement-modifier in angles { ). 

Independent expressions are to be left unmarked. 



PHRASE-MODIFIERS. 81 

2. Copy each sentence, underline the base, and mark the modifiers. 
Put verb-modifiers in brackets [ ]. Thus : — 

(Those) ships [frequently] make (long) voyages. 
We are [never] (entirely) alone. 

3. Write four sentences illustrating the use of adverbs as modifiers 
of different parts of the base. 

3. Adjective and Adverb-Phrases. 

130. We have built up a sentence by modifying the 
base with adjectives and adverbs. The next step will be 
to give to these added words modifiers of their own. 

Thus, instead of high, always, and many, in — 

High winds always injure many trees, 

we may modify each with an adverb (§§ 78, 79), and say, — 

Unusually high winds almost always destroy very many trees. 

Here it is easy to see that " destroy," for instance, is modified not by 
always alone, but by the phrase almost always, since the adverb 
almost is added to show that we do not mean quite always. 

How is " winds " modified ? " Trees " ? Does very many take the 
place of an adjective or an adverb? What may adverbs modify? 

(a) These little phrases ("unusually high," etc.) are 
used as modifiers very much like single words ; and when 
a noun or a verb has several modifiers, some of them may 
be words and some phrases. Thus : — 

Some | large | thrifty | rather graceful | trees. 

They unexpectedly came slowly and very quietly. 

EXERCISE 118. 

1. Give the base of each sentence and its modifiers. Select the 
modifiers that are phrases, and tell whether they are like adjectives 
or like adverbs. 



82 SENTENCE-BUILDING. 

1. Very few persons are perfectly happy. 

2. We beheld the dark blue sky. 

3. Will forgetful boys become good business men ? 

4. He displayed intensely disagreeable manners. 

5. Hereafter I shall study more diligently. 

6. Some rather dull boys have become very famous men. 

2. Copy, and mark the base and modifiers. Thus : — 

(This) (same) person [very recently] made (a) (rather tire- 
some) speech. 

3. Write four sentences containing modified adjectives and 
modified adverbs. 

131. 1. An adjective with all that modifies it is called 
an Adjective phrase. 

2. An adverb with all that modifies it is called an 
Adverb-phrase. 

(a) When an adjective or an adverb takes a modifier of any sort, we 
have a phrase ; as, beautiful in color, suitable for driving, where 
an adjective is modified by a prepositional phrase (§ 132) ; also, 
a little cautiously, ten feet further, where an adverb is modified 
by a noun -phrase (§ 149). 

4. Prepositional Phrases. 

132. There are several other kinds of modifying expres- 
sions which have the meaning and use of adjectives and 
adverbs. 

133. A Prepositional Phrase may always be used like 
an adjective or adverb. Thus : — 

As part of the base, like a predicate adjective : 

Our utensils were of wood (= wooden). 

These savages are from Africa (= African). 



MODIFIED PHRASES. 83 

As modifiers : 

The low mountains (of Vermont) contain marble. 
The layers, or beds, extend [for miles']. 
They show great differences (in color). 
I am happy (beyond measure). 
Burns was a man (of genius). 
What part of the base does each phrase modify ? What modifiers 
are there besides the phrases ? 

EXERCISE 119. 

1. Copy, underline the base, and mark the modifiers, as in pre- 
ceding exercises. 

1. The boyhood of Garfield was spent in poverty. 

2. The path of industry is the path to success. 

3. The needle of the compass may not always point toward the 
north. 

4. The invention of letters was attributed to the Phoenicians. 

5. The Queen of Sheba saw the wisdom of Solomon. 

6. Twenty slaves were brought to Virginia in 1619. 

7. Lincoln emancipated the slaves in 1863. 

8. The weight of evidence is against you. 

9. A dull, heavy cloud of vapor hangs gloomily in the sky above 
our heads. 

2. How many words are essential to make a prepositional phrase ? 
Of what kind must they be ? In the ninth sentence, how many modi- 
fiers has " cloud " ? How many has " hangs " ? 

134. Modified Prepositional Phrases. The base of 
the phrase, that is, the preposition with its object alone, 
does not always make a complete modifier, any more than 
does an adjective or an adverb alone. Thus : — 

"Wise men" means the same as "men of wisdom," but "very- 
wise men " would mean "men of great wisdom," — where a modifier 
is added to the object. Many of the prepositions were formerly ad- 
verbs, and accordingly they too sometimes have modifiers, as in "far 
above the fall," " a moment before the time." 



84 SENTENCE-BUILDING. 



EXERCISE 120. 

1. In the sentence — 

The state is rich in pine forests, 

what modifies the complement "rich"? How is the object of the 
preposition modified. ? 

2. If we change the sentence to — 

The state is rich (in forests of pine), 

how is the complement modified? What modifies "forests?" 

3. In the sentence — 

They lived [on mountains of great height], 

what are the prepositional phrases? What does the second one mod- 
ify? What does the adjective modify? What modifies "lived"? 

135. The examples in the preceding exercise show how 
the object of a preposition may be modified ; and we must 
remember that a noun may always have modifiers, no mat- 
ter how or where it is used. 

(a) A modifier of any part of the base may be called a primary 
modifier; a modifier of what is already a modifier may be called a 
secondary modifier. 

EXERCISE 121. 

1. Give the base of each phrase; i.e., the leading preposition 
and its object, and tell how each object is modified. 



1. in the near future. 

2. without many friends. 

3. after very long delay. 

4. with few signs of failure. 

5. the icy, rattling crags among. 

6. in the centre of the solar sys- 

tem. 



7. along the shores of the broad 

Pacific. 

8. near the sources of the longest 

river of Africa. 

9. after a cold, cheerless journey 

in the rain. 
10. two mounds of snow between. 



2. Write sentences containing the foregoing phrases. Underline 
the base of each, and mark its modifiers as in preceding exercises. 



MEANING MODIFIED BY FORM. 



85 



3. Write six sentences in which prepositional phrases are used to 
modify the three different parts of the base. 

Changes of Form to Modify Meaning. 

EXERCISE 122. 

1. In the expression — 

a tree surrounded by trees, 

would you say that the same noun occurs twice, or that there are two 
nouns almost alike? What difference do you see? Is there a differ- 
ence in sound? What is the difference in meaning? 

2. Select the forms in this list that are used when only one is 
meant : — 



cloud 


man 


horses 


stage 


rose 


feet 


children 


foot 


judges 


monkeys 


% 


knives 


flies 


clock 


pen 


flood 


rivers 


men 


fire 


monks 



3. Which of them are used when we speak of more than one? 

136. We see from the preceding exercise that a noun 
may be modified not only by adding a word, but also by 
changing its form according as it applies to one or to 
more than one. 

One form is called the Singular, because it applies to a 
single one only. The other form is called the Plural, 
because it applies to more than one. Thus : — 

Singular : head, eye, face, dress, foot. 
Plural : heads, eyes, faces, dresses, feet. 

137. The Plural is generally made by adding s or es to 
the singular. 

EXERCISE 123. 

About each of the following words say whether it is singular or 
plural, and then give the other form : — 



86 



SENTENCE-BUILDING. 



vane 


basin 


halves 


children 


Germans 


sponges 


potato 


taxes 


turkeys 


pailfuls 


mason 


niece 


sheaves 


grass 


nephew 


swords 


crutch 


mosquitoes 


women 


dishes 


brushes 


lilies 


glasses 


kisses 


geese 


matches 


oxen 


men 


knives 


chimneys 



5. Possessives : Modifiers of Another Kind. 

138. Sometimes a word is adjective by nature, like 
those we have been studying; but a word that seems to 
be something else may be also adjective by use. 

In these sentences — 

Edward's bicycle has just broken down, 
They heard the horse's hoofs, 
Your yacht was in the race ; 

can you find any words used like adjectives? Do they seem at all 
like nouns or verbs? To whom did the bicycle belong? What 
hoofs were heard? Who owned the yacht? 

139. Such words as Edward's, horse's, your are called 
Possessives because, if the statements just made are true, 
we can say — 

Edward had, or "possessed," a bicycle. 
The horse had, or " possessed," hoofs, 
You had, or "possessed," a yacht; 

and we see that they are really nouns or pronouns changed 
a little from the common form, and used like adjectives to 
describe the thing mentioned by showing to whom or to 
what it belongs. 

EXERCISE 124. 
1. Mention all the possessives, and tell what nouns they modify : — 

1. England's navy is very powerful. 

2. Men's good deeds may live forever. 



POSSESSIVE MODIFIERS. 



87 



3. Children's manners show their training. 

4. Napoleon ended his days at St. Helena. 

5. We decorate her grave with flowers. 

6. Your money will be used for soldiers' monuments. 

7. Is there a proverb about kings' daughters ? 

8. Greenland's warm climate is its greatest treasure. 

9. Winter's rude tempests are gathering now. 

10. Wisdom's ways are ways of pleasantness. 

11. You'll find hornets' nests there. 

12. Does Ecuador's largest coin equal our double eagle ? 

2. Change the possessive nouns to prepositional phrases, thus : — 
" Greenland's climate " means " The climate of Greenland. " 

3. Analyze the sentences by marking base and modifiers. 

4. Write four sentences containing possessives as modifiers of 
subject and object. 

140. To make the possessive form, nouns commonly 
take an apostrophe and s ['s] ; but if an s has already 
been added to make the word plural, they take only an 
apostrophe [']. [The pronouns are changed in various 
ways : you, your ; they, their ; he, his ; I, my ; she, 
her, etc.] 

EXERCISE 125. 

Give the possessive forms of each noun. To which should you 
add only an apostrophe ? Why ? 



fox 


man 


thief 


deer 


valley 


foxes 


men 


thieves 


scissors 


valleys 


armies 


wives 


sister 


Mr. Davis 


woe 


army 


wife 


sisters 


Miss Kelly 


heroes 


calves 


staff 


house 


torches 


gentlemen 


calf 


mice 


houses 


monarch 


juries 


lady 


sheaf 


fishes 


J ur y 


children 


ladies 


Charles 


Mary 


Frances 


Helen 


ox 


James 


Rufus 


Agnes 


mouse 


oxen 


Mrs. Jones 


teeth 


eye-tooth 


brothers 



88 SENTENCE-BUILDING. 

141. A Possessive is a special form of a noun or a pronoun 
used like an adjective to show whose property is meant. [§ 209.] 

6. Appositives : Nouns used as Second Names. 

142. Another sort of modifier appears in this example : 

This man is James Hooper, treasurer. 

How is the noun man modified? What word describes James 
Hooper ? 

The nouns James Hooper and treasurer evidently refer to the 
same person, and we understand that James Hooper is treasurer. So, 
speaking of two men who are machinists, we might say : — 

Hardy and Greene, machinists, have just failed. 

EXERCISE 126. 

In the following sentences : — 

My brother Rudolphus is coming home. 

My cousin, Osmund, went round the world. 

I, William, am to be married. 

Wm. Shakespeare, poet, died in 1616. 

Wm. Shakespeare, confectioner, lives in D street. 

We had reached the great wheat market, Chicago. 

what word shows which brother is meant? Which show who is 
meant by "Wm. Shakespeare"? By "I"? What is the use of the 
word "Osmund "? In the sixth find two names for one thing. 

143. A noun is often added to another noun to de- 
scribe or explain its meaning, when one name is not 
enough. 

The noun thus added is called an appositive, and is 
just as much a modifier as an adjective is, though, unlike 
an adjective, it almost always follows the word it modifies. 

The word appositive means " put by the side of." 



APPOSITIVE MODIFIERS, 89 

EXERCISE 127. 
1. Select the appositives, and tell to what words they refer. 

1. The historian Macaulay wrote " The Lays of Ancient Rome." 

2. The river Nile overflows its banks annually. 

3. The sixth month, July, was named in honor of Julius Csesar. 

4. The children's favorite was the monster elephant, " Jumbo." 

5. The New England festival, Thanksgiving, comes in November. 

6. The capital of New Hampshire, Concord, is on the Merrimac. 

7. We boys have neglected our lessons. 

8. She advised us girls to be patient. 

9. You carpenters have a busy life. 

2. Make sentences, using the first five appositives as subjects 
modified by appositives. 

3. Fill the blanks with appositives. 

1. The poet wrote Hiawatha. 

2. We have all read the new book . 

3. The Quaker city is on the Delaware. 

4. The most useful of metals may be found almost anywhere. 

5. Our teacher is interested in our welfare. 

6. The queen of England has reigned fifty years. 

7. The largest island of all is generally called a continent. 

8. The governor of this state lives at the capital . 

9. The largest city in the world is on the river . 

144. An Appositive is a second name added to a noun or a 
pronoun to explain or describe what is meant. 

(a) Adjectives are often used appositively (§ 345) ; pro- 
nouns only in special cases (§ 320). 

145. Many common family names arose from the use of apposi- 
tives ; for it often happened, many years ago, that each of several men 
went by the same name until people began to distinguish them by 
their trades. 

Thus, there might have been three Johns, called "John, carpenter," 
"John, mason," and "John, tailor." These gradually became their 



90 SENTENCE-BUILDING. 

true names, and they are written nowadays John Carpenter, John 
Mason, John Taylor. 

Can you tell how your own name originated? 

7. Possessive and Appositive Phrases. 

146. Possessive and appositive phrases will be easy 
for us to understand because, like adjective and adverb- 
phrases, they are only possessives and appositives, with 
their modifiers. 

147. We must remember that possessives and apposi- 
tives are only used like adjectives ; they are not what we 
call adjectives, but are really nouns or pronouns. Hence 
they have the same modifiers that other nouns and pro- 
nouns have. 

Thus, instead of girls' hair, we might wish to speak of 
this girl's hair, 
or of a young Japanese girl's hair, 

using possessive phrases in which the adjectives this, a, young, and 
Japanese all modify the possessive girl's. 

So with appositives : — 

Johnny, the newsboy, is passing by. 

My companion, an old friend from Ohio, was very entertaining. 

Now the golden sun, the day's bright eye, is shining. 

Here the, an, old, and from Ohio are added to the appositives as 
secondary modifiers. Eye is modified by the adjective bright, and 
by the possessive phrase the day's. 

EXERCISE 128. 

Tell which phrases in the following are appositive, and which 
possessive; and give the modifiers in each phrase. 

1. Charles Dickens, the great English novelist, died in 1870. 

2. The Moon, the satellite of the Earth, is about two thousand 
miles in diameter. 



PHRASE-MODIFIERS. 91 

3. In 1807, Robert Fulton, an American engineer, sailed the first 
steamboat, the Clermont, on the Hudson. 

4. Benjamin Franklin, a distinguished American statesman, was 
born in Boston in 1706. 

5. Who would disregard a loving mother's counsel ? 

6. The brave colonel's reply was, " I'll try, sir." 

7. Whittier, the Quaker poet, wrote Snow Bound, a Winter Idyl. 

8. Nathaniel Hawthorne, author of The Marble Faun, was born 
in Salem. 

9. Cortez, the conqueror of Mexico, was a Spaniard. 

10. Remember your last year's experiences. 

11. This is a debt of many years' standing. 

12. Now comes the morning star, day's harbinger. 

2. Analyze the preceding sentences by copying and marking. 

148. Punctuation, Rule. — Appositive words and 
phrases must generally be set off from the rest of the sen- 
tence by commas. 

For examples, see preceding exercises. 

EXERCISE 129. 
Make sentences containing these words, modified by appositive 
words or phrases. 



Gen. Grant I Harrisburg I author 

steamboat I David inventor 



Chicago 
Amazon 



8. Nouns or Noun-Phrases used Adverbially. 

149. We have seen that nouns, either with or without 
modifiers, may be used as subjects of verbs, as objects of 
prepositions, as possessives, and as appositives. But from 
expressions like these : — 

Wait a day. Two miles wide. Some time hence. 

Come this way. A little sooner. An hour after dark. 

we learn that — 



92 



SENTENCE-BUILDING. 



150. Noun-phrases may be used like adverbs, showing 
when, how much, etc., to modify verbs, adjectives, adverbs, 
and prepositions. 

EXERCISE 130. 
Select the nouns used adverbially, and tell what they modify. 

6. Come a day sooner or a month 
later. 

7. She stopped a mile above the 
fall. 

8. We saw them many times last 



1. They sail next week. 

2. He'll fight you tooth and nail. 

3. You look better this way. 

4. How many degrees warmer 

is it? 

5. It goes four miles an hour. 



year. 



SUMMARY: MODIFIERS. 

151. We now understand how it is that a simple sen- 
tence may be very long ; for we must often modify a word 
again and again before we can express exactly what we 
mean. 

The simplest modifiers for each part of speech are given 
below : — 

( word 

1. An Adjective \ or 
^ phrase. 

2. A Prepositional 
phrase. 

f word 

3. A Possessive <J or 
^ phrase. 

C word 

4. An Appositive <J or 

^phrase. 



Nouns 

and 

Pronouns 



may 
have for « 
modifiers 



Verbs, 
Adjectives, 

and 

Adverbs 



TEST QUESTIONS. 

r 



93 



may 
have for -< 
modifiers 



f word 

1. An Adverb <J or 

^ phrase. 

2. A Prepositional 

phrase. 

( word 

3. A Noun <J or 

^ phrase. 



TEST QUESTIONS. 

1. Name and define three kinds of verbs. 2. What is the meaning 
of "transitive"? 3. Of "copulative"? 4. What is a complement? 
5. Why do we call objects of verbs " complements " ? 6. Write sen- 
tences showing three kinds of complements. 7. Of what may the 
base of a sentence consist? 8. What is a modifier? 9. What is an 
adjective phrase ? 10. Name four kinds of subject modifiers. 11. By 
what may a verb or an adjective be modified? 12. What parts of 
speech may an adverb modify ? 13. Write sentences showing posses- 
sive and appositive modifiers. 14. Give the rule for punctuating ap- 
positives. 15. What parts of speech are not used as modifiers? 



CHAPTER VI. 

SENTENCE-ANALYSIS. 

REVIEW EXERCISE. 131. 

1. Mention the three classes into which sentences are divided 
according to meaning. 2. What is a simple sentence? 3. A com- 
pound sentence? 4. Into what may every compound sentence be 
separated? 5. Every simple sentence? 6. Into what may every 
enlarged subject be separated? 7. Every enlarged predicate? 

8. Name the two elements that may form the base of a sentence. 

9. The three elements. 10. What parts of speech may form a com- 
plement? 11. What is a modifier? 

152. While studying the building up of sentences we 
have had some practice in Analysis, or the taking apart 
of sentences ; for we have pointed out their principal 
parts, and have shown how each is modified. 

153. Analysis is the process of separating a sentence into 
its parts, and of showing what they have to do with one another. 

154. Method. If, in analyzing a simple or a com- 
pound sentence, we treat modifying phrases as single 
words, the structure of it can be made clear either orally 
or in writing, by telling in this order — 

1. The kind of sentence. 

2. The kind of sentences united to form it. 

3. The base of the Jirst assertion, question, or command. 

4. The subject and its modifiers. 

5. The verb and its modifiers. 

6. The complement and its modifiers. 

7. The base of the second, — subject, verb, complement. 

8. The conjunctions. 

9. The independent expressions. 



METHOD. 95 

Model for Analysis. U A fool speaks all his mind, but a wise man 
reserves something for hereafter.''' 

1. This is a compound assertive sentence, 

2. Formed by uniting two simple assertions. 

3. The base of the first assertion is fool speaks mind. 

4. The subject fool is modified by the adjective a. 

5. The verb speaks is modified only by its object mind. 

6. The object mind is modified by the adjective all, and by the 
possessive his. 

7. The base of the second assertion is man reserves something. 

8. The subject man is modified by the adjectives a and wise. 

9. The verb reserves is modified by the prepositional phrase for 
hereafter. 

10. The object something is unmodified. 

11. The conjunction but unites the two assertions. 

155. A phrase may be analyzed by telling — 

1. Its kind. 

2. What it modifies. 

3. Its base (i.e. the word from which it is named, and the comple- 
ment of it, if there is one). 

4. The modifiers of the base. 

Th us, in the sentence — 

De Soto (the discoverer of the Mississippi) was buried [in its 
waters], — 
we may say that the discoverer of the Mississippi is — 

1. An appositive phrase, 

2. Modifying the noun De Soto. 

3 and 4. The base discoverer is modified by the adjective the and 
by the prepositional phrase of the Mississippi. 

EXERCISE 132. 

1. Analyze the sentences in Exercises 79, 121, 128. 

2. Analyze the phrases in the same Exercises. 



96 



SENTENCE-ANALYSIS. 



156. A simple form of written analysis is that already 
given on page 79. Thus : — 

(A) fool speaks (all) (his) mind, | but | (a) (wise) man reserves 
something [for hereafter]. 



157. Abbreviations for Written Analysis. 1 Instead 
of writing out an analysis in full, the following abbrevia- 
tions may be used to designate the subject, verb, and com- 
plement, with their modifiers : — 

C. Complement. 

O. Object. 

SC. Subjective Complement. 

PA. Predicate Adjective. 

PN. Predicate Noun. 

M. Modifier. 

aj. adjective. 

ajph. adjective phrase. 

ap. appositive. 



SA. 
SQ. 

SI. 
CA. 
CQ. 

CI. 

B. 
A. 
Q. 
Com. 
S. 
V. 

2A. 

A 1 ., 



Simple Assertive Sentence. 

Simple Interrogative Sen- 
tence. 

Simple Imperative Sen- 
tence. 

Compound Assertive Sen- 
tence. 

Compound Interrogative 
Sentence. 

Compound Imperative Sen- 
tence. 

Base. 

Assertion. 

Question. 

Command. 

Subject. 

Verb. 



apph. appositive phrase. 

av. adverb. 

avph. adverb-phrase. 

pph. prepositional phrase. 

pos. possessive. 

posph. possessive phrase. 

nph. noun-phrase. 

conj. conjunction. 



3A., etc., show how many assertions there are. 
A 2 ., etc., indicate first assertion, second assertion, etc. 



Example. " A fool speaks all his mind, but a wise man reserves 
something for hereafter." 

1. CA. = 2A. 

2. B. of A 1 . = fool speaks mind. 

1 To make a written analysis as full as an oral one involves much time, unless some 
system of abbreviations is used. Those here given, though in part arbitrary, are chiefly 
initial letters, and have been found easy to learn. 



MODELS, 97 

3. M. of S./ooZ = a;j. a. 

4. M. of V. speaks = O. mind. 

5. M. of O. mind — aj. all : pos. his. 

6. B. of A 2 . = man reserves something. 

7. M. of S. man = ajs. a, wise. 

8. M. of V. reserves = pph. for hereafter. 

9. M. of O. something = 

10. A 1 , and A 2 , joined by conj. and. 

Note. For the analysis of complex sentences, and for the treatment 
of all kinds of modifiers, see §§ 307, 587, 592, 595. 

EXERCISE 133. 

Copy the following model carefully, and explain all the marks 
and abbreviations used : — 

" [Here] rests (his) head [upon the lap of earth], 
(A) youth (to fortune and to fame unkuown) : | 
(Fair) Science frowned [not] [on his humble birth], | 
And | Melancholy marked him [for her own]." 

v 1. CA. = 3A. 

2. B. of A 1 . = youth rests head. 

3- M. of S. youth = aj. a; ajph. unknown to fortune and to fame. 

4. M. of V. rests = av. here ; pph. upon the lap of earth. 

5. M. of O. head = pos. his. 

6. B. of A 2 . = Science froicned. 

7. M. of S. Science = a], fair. 

8. M. of V. frowned — av. not : pph. on his humble birth. 

9. B. of A 3 . = Melancholy marked him. 

10. M. of V. marked = pph. for her own. 

11. A 2 , and A 3 , joined by conj. and. 

EXERCISE 134. 

1. Analyze in full, either orally or in writing, according to the 
preceding models. 

1. The first step toward greatness is honesty. 

2. Hope is an anchor to the soul. 



98 SENTENCE-ANALYSIS. 

3. Trifles often lead to serious results. 

4. The logwood tree is a native of Central America. 

5. The camphor gum of commerce is the product of a species of 
laurel. 

6. The gum is deposited in tiny crystals in the wood of the tree. 

7. By the next morning the wind had increased to a gale. 
2. Analyze in the same way the sentences in Exercise 113. 

Inverted Order. 

158. Although the form and the meaning of the words 
that make a sentence help us to understand the construc- 
tion of it, yet we depend chiefly upon the arrangement 
of its parts, which is commonly much the same in differ- 
ent sentences. 

The usual order, however, is often changed or inverted 
for the sake of emphasis or clearness, and, in poetry, for 
many other reasons. 

EXERCISE 135. 

1. Where is a complement usually placed? 2. What is the usual 
position of the modifiers of a verb? Give examples. 3. Does an adjec- 
tive generally precede its noun or follow it? 4. Are possessives and 
appositives used before or after the words they modify? 5. What 
modifiers may an adjective have? Give examples to show the usual 
order. 6. When one adverb modifies another, where is it placed? 
7. Where are prepositions and conjunctions placed? 

159. The subject often follows the verb — 

(a) In assertive sentences, as : — 

Flashed all their sabres bare. Dark was the night. Fiercely blew 
the wintry wind. Down the hillside ran a brook. There was a dense 
fog. There is no help for us. 

(b) In interrogative sentences, especially when the interrogative 
word forms no part of the subject ; as in, — 



INVERTED ORDER. 99 

Were others present? Whom did you see? When shall we be 
free? Which island do the French own? For what are they con- 
tending? Is there no hope? 

Such sentences of course almost always begin with the interroga- 
tive expression, whether pronoun, adjective, adverb, or prepositional 
phrase. 

(c) In sentences expressing a condition or a wish, like, — 
Were that to happen, I could not go. May nothing prevent. May 
there be enough for all. 

As shown in these examples, it is not the verb that is 
ordinarily put first in inverted sentences, but rather some 
complement or modifier of it, if there is one. And, as 
shown in the last examples in each group, we frequently 
begin a sentence with the adverb " there," when it is pro- 
nounced ther, and used without much of its original 
meaning. 

When the real subject follows the verb, the temporary subject "it" often precedes; 
as, It is best to wait. (§ 303.) 

EXERCISE 136. 

1. Read each sentence, and show by your pronunciation of " there " 
whether it means " in that place," or has no definite meaning. 

2. Transpose, putting the subject first, without changing the pro- 
nunciation of " there." 

1. There goes the new boat. 2. There the pilot stands to watch 
her. 3. There will be no sorrow there. 4. There stood my old friend. 
5. There are a thousand here. 6. There was darkness over all the 
land. 7. There can be no success without effort. 

160. When there is reason for the change, modifiers 
of almost every kind may be placed in inverted order, or 
they may be separated from that part of the sentence to 
which they belong ; e.g. : — 

A maiden fair. And T the victor slew. Lean thou this staff 
upon. Slowly the day declines. For us the sun ne'er sets, 



100 SENTENCE-ANALYSIS. 

In analysis, we must be careful to transpose every part 
to its more usual place. 

(a) When modified by a phrase, an adjective usually follows its 
noun Thus, we say, " a man ready for work, " not " a ready for 
work man." 

EXERCISE 137. 

1. Read each of the following sentences, transpose into the usual 
order, and explain what changes you make. 

2. Copy, and analyze by marking thus : — 

[Up the hill] <bis) horse he [hotly] urged. 

1. Here ends the tale. 2. Many are our faults. 3. A mighty king- 
was he. 4. Of years agone I'm dreaming. 5. The queen hath him 
offended. 6. Of many men the names he knew. 7. To pastures new 
press we now eagerly on. 8. Within my garden bloomed a lily tall. 
9. Through the dark defile wound the long battalion slowly. 10. Here 
once the embattled farmers stood. 11. Lightly from bough to bough 
fluttered the birds in the tree-tops. 12. A vision bright at dead of 
night I saw. 13. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 

EXERCISE 138. 

1. Read and transpose as in Ex. 137. 

2. Copy and make a written analysis as in § 157. 

1. Somewhere the birds are singing evermore. 

2. Pleasantly rose the sun on the village of Grand-Pre. 

3. Under the spreading chestnut-tree 
The village smithy stands. 

4. Down the broad valley, fast and far, 
The troubled army fled. 

5. There wandered a noble Moslem boy 
Through the scene of beauty in breathless joy. 

6. Safely through another week 
God has brought us on our way. 

7. Softly now the light of day 
Fades upon my sight away. 



EXERCISES. 101 

EXERCISE 139. 
Analyze the following sentences in full, or with abbreviations, or 
by marking : — 

1. The human body is a study for one's whole life. 

2. Betwixt eyes and nose a strange contest arose. 

3. The streams of small pleasures fill the lake of happiness. 

4. The fate of empires depends upon the education of youth. 

5. How use doth breed a habit in a man ! 

6. The first and greatest end of education is the discipline of the 
mind. 

7. In the course of our reading we should lay up in our minds a 
store of goodly thoughts in well-wrought words. 

8. The robin and the bluebird fill all the blossoming orchards with 
their glee, and the joyous skylark gives out a flood of song among the 
clouds. 

9. Here rest the great and good in lowly graves. 

10. Many persons have no ear for music; but every one has an ear 
for skilful reading. 

11. The ruby-throated humming-bird — the loveliest one of the 
whole family — is a native of the Southern States. 

12. On the quarter-deck of the flag-ship stood Admiral Sir John 
Narborough, the first seaman in all England. 

13. In the market-place of Bruges stands the belfry old and brown. 

14. Study wisdom, and you will reap pleasure. 

15. Laziness grows on people ; it begins in cobwebs, and it ends in 
iron chains. 

16. Among the pitfalls in our way 
The best of us walk blindly. 

17. Duty points, with outstretched fingers, 
Every soul to action high. 

18. Oft on the trampling band, from crown 
Of some tall cliff, the deer look down. 

19. To every man upon this earth 
Death cometh soon or late. 

20. Around this lovely valley rise 
The purple hills of Paradise. 



102 SENTENCE- ANALYSIS. 

21. O softly on yon bank of haze 
Her rosy face the summer lays. 

22. Through all the long midsummer day 
The meadow sides are sweet with hay. 

23. Lack of occupation is not rest ; 

A mind quite vacant is a mind distressed. 

24. Silently, one by one, in the infinite meadows of heaven, 
Blossomed the lovely stars, the forget-me-nots of the angels. 

25. The master of the district school, 
Brisk wielder of the birch and rule, 
Held at the fire his favored place. 

26. Strong is thy dwelling-place, and thou puttest thy nest in 
a rock. 

27. Across the unknown western sea the daring Genoese saw an- 
other route to India. 

28. In the most distant hamlet beyond the mountains, in the lonely 
cabin by the sea, eyes were turned to this place with anxious longings. 

29. During the distress of the American army, Mr. Venable, an 
army commissioner, took from Mr. Hook, a Scotchman, two steers for 
the use of the troops. 

30. Is it the palm, the cocoa-palm, 

On the Indian sea, by the isles of balm? 

31. In the elder days of Art, 

Builders wrought with greatest care 
Each minute and unseen part ; 
For the gods see everywhere. 

32. The roll of drum and the bugle's wailing 
Vex the air of our hills no more. 

33. Bring down, O lowland river, 

The joy of the hills to the waiting sea. 

34. Hands of angels, unseen by mortal eyes, shifted the scenery of 
the heavens ; the glories of night dissolved into the glories of the dawn. 

35. Early to-morrow morning bring roses dewy and fresh, for each 
fair maid shall be a fairy dame, full of wit and dainty-eyed ; then for 
them all there'll be garlands of roses. 



CHAPTER VII. 

NOUNS. 

REVIEW EXERCISE. 140. 

1. What is a noun? 2. If a word stands as subject of a sentence, 
to what parts of speech may it belong? 3. What if it is the object of 
a verb or of a preposition? 4. What do you call a word that is modi- 
fied by an adjective V 5. How do you tell whether a word is a noun 
or not? 

6. What kinds of words or phrases may modify a noun ? 7. Use 
" store " as the subject of a sentence, and give it two or three modi- 
fiers. 8. Use " president " as an object, and modify .it by a preposi- 
tional phrase and an appositive. 



A. KINDS. 
1. Proper Nouns. 



161. We cannot always use nouns correctly in sen- 
tences, without having some regard to the classes into 
which they are divided according to their meaning. 



EXERCISE 141. 

1. (a) Does the name " gulf " always stand for the same body of 
water? (b) To how many parts of a year may the word "month " 
apply ? (c) To how many does the word " April " apply ? 

2. About each of the following nouns say whether it may rep- 
resent any one of several things, or is meant to be the special name 
of one individual. 



104 



NOUNS. 



river 


Amazon 


city 


Berlin 


mountain 


Vesuvius 


ocean 


Atlantic 


continent 


Africa 


dog 


Bruno 


orator 


Webster 


month 


August 


explorer 


Stanley 


star 


Jupiter 


holiday 


Christmas 


book 


Jo's Boys 



3. (a) Which word in each of the following groups applies to the 
greatest number ? (ft) Which to the least ? (c) Which are names for 
every one of a certain class? (d) Which are "given names"? (e) 
Name another individual of each class. 



man 


soldier 


animal 


gentleman 


author 


officer 


quadruped 


scholar 


poet 


general 


elephant 


teacher 


Bryant 


Sheridan 


Jumbo 


Dr. Arnold 



162. Some nouns, such as "man" or "water," repre- 
sent a thing as being of a certain kind or class, without 
showing which particular one or which part is meant. 
Other nouns are names given to designate a particular 
individual. 

Thus the noun man may apply to any one of millions of persons, 
but the name William E. Gladstone applies to one person only. 
The name city is held in common by hundreds of places, because they 
are in some respects alike; but Philadelphia, Chicago, Boston, 
are names given to certain cities, to' be, as it were, their exclusive 
property. 

163. A name held in common by all of a kind is called 
a Common noun ; and a special name given to one indi- 
vidual for its own is called a Proper noun. 

" Proper " is derived from a word meaning one's own. 



EXERCISE 142. 

Select the nouns that describe persons or things according to their 
qualities, and give the meaning of each. 



PROPER NOUNS. 



105 



city 


river 


air 


surveyor 


clay 


territory 


bay 


star 


lawyer 


bricks 


mountain 


navigator 


planet 


president 


stone 


Washington 


Hudson 


Jupiter 


Lincoln 


The Sphinx 



164. Common nouns, such as clock, kitchen, tree, glass, putty, 
oysters, weight, writing, mercy, have meanings that describe things and 
show what they are by nature. 

Proper nouns, as we use them, have no longer any meaning in 
themselves, and like the word Dick, which may name a horse, a man, 
a boy, a dog, or a bird, they serve only to designate one person, 
place, or thing. 

We can judge by looking at an object what common nouns to apply 
to it ; but if it has a proper name, that must be learned in some other 
way. 







EXERCISE 143. 




1. Tell which of these nouns are common and which proper 


King 


Solomon 


Temper 


Music 


Paris 


Rome 


Eagle 


Shasta 


Noise 


.Samuel 


Ocean 


Peru 


Mitchell 


Piano 


rliches 


War 


Beauty 


Warden 


Mozart 


Mercy 


Christian 


Turk 


Italian 


Democrat 


Saint 



2. Does the last word in each column show what sort of person is 
meant? If so, these words are common nouns. 

165. Sometimes the same name is held by several persons or places without show- 
ing that they are alike. Thus : — 

The four Aliens lived in four different Watervilles. 

166. A Proper Noun is a special name meant for only one 
individual. 

All other nouns are common nouns. 

167. A Common Noun is a general name for any or all of a 
certain kind. 



168. Capitals, Rule. — Proper nouns and words 
formed from them must begin with capitals. 



106 NOUNS. 

(a) When a proper name is made tip of several parts, each one must begin with a 
capital. Thus : — 

John Greenleaf Whittier ; the Duke of Brunswick. 



EXERCISE 144. 

1. Write the special or proper names of several individuals in each 
of the following classes : — 

River; town; volcano; governor; king; author; country; planet; 
queen ; dog ; historian ; state ; yacht ; month ; painter ; poet ; capital ; 
president ; book ; inventor. 

2. What are the people called who live in the following places? 
Thus : — 

" Canada," Canadians; " Genoa," Genoese. 

Canada; Genoa; Cuba; Spain; Venice; Italy; Europe; Mexico; 
Brazil; Burmah ; China; Japan; Malta; Norway; Boston. 

2. Gender-nouns. 

169. Among the nouns that name living beings, many 
names show to which sex a person belongs ; as, — 

Edward, Mary, Margaret; 

and we sometimes find two nouns with no difference in 
meaning, except that one of them denotes a male and the 
other a female ; as, — 

prince, princess; son, daughter; John, Jane. 

170. All such nouns are called Gender-nouns, because 
they show which sex is meant. Those that by their form 
denote males are said to be masculine, or of the masculine 
gender ; those that denote females are said to be feminine, 
or of the feminine gender. 

171. (a) Sometimes the correlative gender-nouns are similar in 
form, the feminine ending in -ess. Thus ; — 



GENDER-NOUNS. 



107 



abbot, abbess; 
actor, actress; 
baron, baroness; 
count, countess; 
duke, duchess; 
emperor, empress; 
god, goddess; 



governor, governess ; 
heir, heiress; 
host, hostess; 
Jew, Jewess; 
lad, lass; * 
lion, lioness; 
marquis, marchioness; 



master, mistress; 
negro, negress; 
priest, priestess; 
prince, princess; 
prophet, prophetess; 
shepherd, shepherdess; 
tiger, tigress. 



172. (b) Some words from foreign languages are changed in 
other -ways. Thus : — 



administrator, administra- 
trix ; 
beau, belle; 
czar, czarina; 
executor, executrix; 



hero, heroine; 
sultan, sultana; 
testator, testatrix; 
Augustus, Augusts 
Charles, Charlotte; 



Francis, Frances; 
Henry, Henrietta; 
Joseph, Josephine; 
Louis, Louisa; 
Paul, Paulina. 



173. (c) Sometimes the feminine is a wholly different word 
from its corresponding masculine. Thus : — 



bachelor, maid 
earl, countess; 
king, queen; 



lord, lady; 

monk or friar, nun ; 

sir, madam; 



stag, hind; 
wizard, witch; 
youth, maiden. 



In widower, widow, the masculine is made from the feminine. 

174. (d) Sometimes the first part of a compound word serves 
merely to show which sex is meant. Thus : — 

he-goat, she-bear, man-servant. 

175. (e) With most nouns, however, the same form is used for 
both sexes, and words like poet, editor, doctor, author may refer to a 
person of either sex, just as do parent, child, friend, cousin. 

EXERCISE !45. 

1. (a) Which of the following nouns do not show sex ? (b) Tell 
whether the gender-nouns are masculine or feminine, and give the 
corresponding word of opposite gender, if there is one. 

Cousin; clerk; Edward; duchess; president; bridegroom; printer; 
empress ; cashier ; peacock ; child ; cook ; czar ; lass ; widow ; secre- 
tary ; sultana ; servant ; nun ; artist ; spinster ; aunt ; goose ; abbot ; 
maiden ; husband ; roe ; hen ; landlord ; laundress. 



1 Contracted. 



108 NOUNSo 

2. Give as many general names as you can for relatives of both 

sexes j as, uncle, aunt. 

176. A Gender-noun is one that shows by its form 
which sex is meant. 

3. Collective Nouns. 
EXERCISE 146. 

1. What is the difference between a soldier and an army? 2. A 
ship and a fleet? 3. A singer and a choir? 4. Of what is a jury 
made up? 5. A flock? 6. A school? 

177. Some nouns, even in the singular form, may be 
plural in meaning, and are called Collective nouns, be- 
cause they denote a collection of individuals. 

EXERCISE 147. 

Fill the blanks so as to show of what each collection is composed: — 

1. A regiment of ■-. 2. A crew of . 3. A swarm of . 

4. A herd of . 5. The Senate contains . 6. A family of . 

7. A team of . 8. A pair of . 9. A club of . 10. A 

troop of . 11. in the constellation. 12. on the com- 
mittee. 13. in the tribe. 14. in the pack. 15. in the 

procession. 

178. A Collective Noun is one that even in the singular 
form denotes a number of separate persons or things. 

EXERCISE 148. 

1. Define each word so as to show that it is a collective noun : — 

Group ; class ; council ; hive ; multitude ; jury ; fleet ; flock ; mob ; 
society; band; drove; couple; bevy; gang. 

2. What word may be applied to a collection of — 



MATERIAL AND ABSTRACT NOUNS. 109 

Birds ; robbers ; scholars ; wolves ; stars ; bees ; cottages ; emi- 
grants ; buffaloes ; sailors. 

3. Learn the meaning of each of these collective nouns : — 

Horde; leash; brigade; corps; kennel; lodge; stud; cortege; 
suite; retinue. 

4. Material or Mass-nouns. 

179. There are other kinds of nouns that it is useful to 
notice, though they may not affect the form of anything 
we write. 

180. Xotice that such words as clay, cotton, sugar, flax, brass, 
hay, wax, rice, do not denote things of definite size or shape, such as 
can be counted, but only substances, materials, or masses, that must 
be measured? Hence they are called Mass-nouns, or Material- 
nouns. 

EXERCISE 149. 

1. Name some materials used in building. 2. Of what is the human 
body composed? 3. Name the various materials used in making 
clothing. 4. Mention ten other wiass-nouns. 5. How many of them 
have you heard used in the plural ? 6. Find several material nouns 
in Exercise 51. 

181 • Generally we have no need to use the plural of material nouns, hut some- 
times we speak of cottons, teas, sugars, grasses, etc., meaning different binds of 
cotton, tea, sugar, grass, etc.; and we often use the plural when speaking of things that 
may disappear and come again ; as, — 

Snow; rain; wind; niist; vapor; funie; perfume; odor; scent; etc. 

5. Abstract Nouns. 

182. Nouns of the classes that we have studied represent things 
that take up room or have weight, including all living things and what- 
ever is like a solid, a liquid, or a vapor. 

183. All other nouns apply to what cannot take up 
room, or be weighed, or touched, or moved. Thus : — 



110 



NOUNSo 



Motion, movement, hurry, race, speed, distance, absence. 
Beauty, color, freshness, brilliancy, gleam, warmth. 
Harmony, music, tune, discord, sound, disturbance, war. 

They are called Abstract nouns because they are names 
of qualities, etc., considered separately from the objects to 
which they belong. 

"Abstract" means drawn off, separated. 

184. Kinds. Of the many kinds of abstract nouns, the most 
important are — 

1. Nouns that name a quality or a condition ; as, — 

brightness, poverty, pride, weight, flexibility. 

2. Verbal nouns, which name the action asserted by a verb ; as — . 

learning, rejoicing, loving, to swing, to skate. 



EXERCISE 150. 

1. Select from this list five material nouns ; five names of actions ; 
ten names of qualities or conditions. 



weakness 
despair 
singing 
glass 



industry 
temperance 
haste 
sleet 



hoping 
heat 
reading 
borax 



speed 
slumber 
dashing 
paint 



fear 
hunger 
coasting- 
quartz 



2. Tell what objects have these qualities, using adjectives to com- 
plete the assertion. Thus : — 

" Glass is transparent." 

Transparency; strength; ferocity; brilliancy; hardness; docility: 
courage; value; brittleness; speed; beauty; rarity; elasticity; en- 
durance ; color. 

3. Name four qualities or conditions of — 



Wood 


gold 


an explorer 


a good son 


air 


water 


a gymnast 


a great man 


camels 


music 


a miser 


an agreeable companion 



185. An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality, a condi- 
tion, or an action. 



INFLECTION 111 



EXERCISE 151. 

1. Into what two classes may all nouns be divided? Name four 
kinds of common nouns. 

2. There are five nouns of a kind in the following list. Which of 
them are proper nouns? Which collective? Arrange the rest in 
three groups according as they are gender, mass, or abstract nouns. 

Maryland; Great Bear; gum; legislature; Eliot; Frenchman; 
Englishman; skill; widower; humility; audience; veal; monk; 
whiskey ; gypsum ; slavery ; Quito ; knowledge ; brigade ; bevy • 
mahogany ; suite ; Thursday ; marching ; duck. 

3. Select and classify the nouns on page 21, Part I. 

TEST QUESTIONS. 

1. Are nouns classified according to their form or their meaning ? 
2. Of what use is it to study the different kinds of nouns? 3. Why 
are some called " proper " ? Is their form in any way peculiar ? 4. 
Give some examples of collective nouns. 5. Why do we say " a key," 
"a pond," "a road," but not "a brass," " a water," "a gravel"? 6. 
Of what kind are the last three nouns? 7. What name is given to 
nouns that name qualities ? 8. Mention four abstract nouns that do 
not name qualities. 9. Which nouns designate without describing? 
10. Which is the largest class of nouns? Why? 



B. INFLECTION : 
CHANGES IN FORM FOR DIFFERENT USES. 

186. Besides using adjectives or other modifiers to 
show just what a word represents, it is often necessary 
to change the form of the word according to its different 
uses or applications ; i.e. to inflect it. 



112 NOUNS, 



1 . Number. 

187. The most common change in the form of a noun 
is that by which we express Number. [See p. 85.] 

188. Most nouns have two number-forms, the singular 
and the plural. 

The singular number denotes only one. 
The plural number denotes more than one. 

189. Rule I. — Most nouns are made plural by adding 

s to the singular. Thus : — 

chair valley zero gulf fife monarch German 

chairs valleys zeros gulfs fifes monarchs Germans 

190. Rule II. — Letters, figures, signs, etc., are made 
plural by adding 's. Thus : — 

Do not make your r's and v's alike. Cancel the 9's. Make the 
+'s and — 's larger. 

EXERCISE 152. 

1. (a) Is the number of syllables always the same in both singu- 
lar and plural ? (h) Which of these words are pronounced with an 
additional syllable in the plural ? (c) Try to discover the reason. 
(d) What is the additional syllable ? 

House ; place ; pane ; size ; noose ; plate ; fire ; bridge ; bride ; 
niche; name; rope; truce; pulse; fence; case; pause; force. 

2. Can you tell why in making these plurals we have added es 
instead of s alone ? 

Losses ; taxes ; topazes ; dishes ; churches. 

191. Some nouns end with a sound so much like that 
of s that we cannot pronounce the plural easily without 
making another syllable. Hence — 



NUMBER. 113 

192. Rule III. — Nouns ending in s, x, z, sh, or ch 

(soft} form the plural by adding es to the singular. Thus : — 

grass box topaz wish larch 

grasses boxes topazes wishes larches 

EXERCISE 153. 

Write the plural of — 

Pass ; branch ; honey ; tyro ; clef ; safe ; fez ; bush ; patriarch ; 
piano; fife; dwarf; fox; arch; medley; chimney; hoof; i and t. 

193. Some nouns require other changes to be made in 
forming the plural. 

Notice those ending in y. Which of them end in y after a con- 
sonant? What is the change in the plural? 

fly key lily buoy story tray enemy ditty 

flies keys lilies buoys stories trays enemies ditties 

194. Rule IV. — If the singidar ends in y after a con- 
sonant^ y becomes ie in the plural. 

Thus: Pony, ponies; sty, sties; cry, cries; body, bodies. Also, 
soliloquy, soliloquies; colloquy, colloquies. 

Xote. "Words like lady, city, etc., formerly ended in ie in the 6ingular. 

195. Rule V. — Thirteen nouns ending in f, and three 
in fe, form the plural in ves. They are — 

Beef, calf, elf, half, leaf, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, staff, thief, wharf, 
wolf; knife, life, wife. (Plural beeves, calves, elves: knives, etc.) 

All other nouns in f or fe are regular, adding only s. 

196. Rule VI. — About forty nouns ending in o after a 
consonant form the plural in es. 

The most common ones are — 

Buffalo, cargo, calico, echo, embargo, flamingo, hero, mosquito, 



114 NOUNS. 

motto, mulatto, negro, potato, tomato, tornado, torpedo, volcano, veto. 
(Plural cargoes, echoes, etc.) 

Most nouns in o (several hundred in all) are regular, 
adding only s. 

197. Rule VII. — Nine common words always form 
their plural toithout s. They are — 

Man, men; ox, oxen; goose, geese; woman, women; foot, feet; 
mouse, mice; child, children; tooth, teeth: louse, lice. 

German, Mussulman, Turcoman, ottoman, talisman, are not compounds of man, 
and form their plural in s. 

EXERCISE 154. 

Write the plural of each word : — 

Jelly; ruby; fairy; glory; duty; victory; turkey; sheaf; chief; 
strife ; money ; attorney ; cameo ; motto ; grotto ; half ; waif ; solilo- 
quy; alley; ally; veto; solo; mouse; memento. 

198. Proper nouns, when made plural, generally fol- 
low the same rules as common nouns. Thus we write : — 

All the Beechers; the Adamses; the Alleghanies; several Mr. 
Smiths; both the Miss Hudsons; the two Gen. Johnstons ; one of the 
Dr. Davises ; the Mrs. Wrights. But — 

(a) To prevent confusion, we may make the fewest changes possible 
in the forms of proper nouns, and may write (for example) the eight 
Henrys, the Marys, the two Miss Carys, instead of the Henries, the 
Maries, the Caries. 

(b) In referring to members of one family, or to partners in busi- 
ness, we may give the plural form to the title " Mr." or " Miss " 
instead of to the name itself. Thus we may say — 

Mr. Hayes, or the Messrs. Hayes ; Miss Sands, or the Misses Sands. 

(c) A title is, of course, made plural when used with several names 

Thus : — 

Messrs. Long and Collins ; Misses Charlotte, Emily, and Anne 
Bronte; Drs. Brown and White; Gens. Lee and Jackson. 



PLURALS. 115 

199. Most Compound words form their plural like 
simple words by changing the final syllable. Thus: — 

Frenchmen; greenhouses; flag-staffs; handfuls; court-yards; major- 
generals ; four-in-hands ; forget-me-nots ; jack-in-the-pulpits ; three- 
per-cents ; piano-fortes. 

(a) A few compounds are made plural by changing the first part, 
which the rest of the word merely describes. Thus : — 

Brothers-in-law ; sisters-in-law; sons-in-law; daughters-in-law ; fathers-in-law ; 
mothers-in-law ; attorney s-at-law ; attorneys-general; x>ostmasters-general; command- 
ers-in-chief; generals-in-chief ; aides-de-camp ; courts-martial; cousins-german; hang- 
ers-on; lookers-on; knights-errant; men-of-war; and a few others. 

(b) Occasionally both parts are changed, as in man-servant, men- 
servants. 

EXERCISE 155. 

Spell or write the plural of these words : — 

Gentleman; grandmother; spoonful; son-in-law; handicraft; maid- 
servant; court-martial; dining-room; major-general; rope-ladder; 
eyelash; touch-me-not; go-between; stowaway; sailor-boy; outgoing; 
cupful; by-path; attorney-general; man-servant; ottoman; English- 
man ; flower-de-luce ; will-o'-the-wisp. 

200. Foreign Plurals. Many words taken without change from 

other languages retain their foreign plurals. Thus : — 

Larva, larva; ; vertebra, vertebrce ; alumnus, alumni; focus, foci; fungus, fungi ; 
radius, radii; stratum, strata; axis, axes ; crisis, crises; ellipsis, ellipses ; oasis, oases; 
genus, genera; phenomenon, phenomena, etc. 

201. Some nouns have the same form for both singular and 
plural meanings. We can tell the number of such nouns only by the 
context. Among them are — 

(a) Deer, sheep, swine, alms, gross, — always singular in form. 

(b) Amends, means, odds, pains, wages, — always plural in form. 

(c) Brick, cannon, heathen, head, shot, sail; grouse, salmon, and many 
names offish and of game : brace, score, hundred, and other words refer- 
ring to number or to quantity. These have also regular plurals with a 
meaning different from that of the singular. 



116 NOUNS. 

202. (a) Some nouns, from the nature of what is meant, are almost 
always singular. [See § 181.] As, — 

Wisdom, music, temperance, honesty, etc. 
(b) And some are always plural. As, — 

Ashes, annals, antipodes, measles, nuptials, scissors, shears, tidings, 
victuals, vitals, etc. 

203. (a) Some nouns are plural in form but singular in mean- 
ing. As, — 

News, gallows, and words in -ics, — politics, mathematics, ethics, etc. 

(b) And some, singular in form, may be plural in meaning. As, — 

Army, kin, committee, and other collective nouns. Also, cattle. 

204 Some nouns used in two senses have two plural forms. 

brother . brothers (by parentage) brethren (by association). 

cloth . . . cloths (kinds of cloth) clothes (garments). 

die dies (for coinage, etc.) dice (for games) . 

fish . . . .fishes (regarded separately) . .fish (collectively). 
genius . . geniuses (men of genius) .... genii (supernatural beings). 
index . . indexes (tables of contents) . . indices (algebraic signs). 
pea .... peas (in definite number) . . . pease (by the quantity). 

penny . . pennies (single coins) pence (as a value or amount). 

staff . . . staffs (as a military term) . . . staves (in most senses). 
stamen . stamens (of flowers) stamina (support or strength). 

2. Case. 
EXERCISE 156. 

1. Tell to what part of speech " cross " belongs in each sentence, 
and how you make the distinction. 

1. The bridges cross the stream. I 3. The emblem of the Christian 

2. He gave me a cross look. religion is the cross. 

2. (a) In what six ways is the noun "Albert" used in these 
sentences? 

1. Albert has returned. 4. My brother Albert is ill. 

2. This was Albert's book. 5. Have you met Albert? 

3. Go with Albert. 6. My name is Albert. 



CASE-FOKMS. 117 

(6) How many forms does the noun have in these sentences? 
(c) Which use requires a special form? (d) How do the forms 
differ? 

205. Besides having number-forms to show singular or 
plural meaning, nouns have also what are called Case- 
forms, according to their use in a sentence. But there is 
only one of the various uses for which a special form is 
required. 

206. Nouns have two case-forms or cases, — the gen- 
eral or common form, for all uses but one ; and the special 
or possessive form, used to show ownership or posses- 



207. The possessive form of nouns is made by adding 
to the common form an apostrophe and s [*s], or an apos- 
trophe alone ['], according to the following 

Rule. — To plural nouns ending in s add an apostrophe ; 
to all other nouns add an apostrophe and s. Thus : — 

Day's, days'; man's, men's; lady's, ladies'; Mr. Hay's book; Mr. 
Hayes's house ; ostrich's, ostriches'. 

Note 1. In words ending with a sound that resembles that of s, the apostrophe with 
s forms an additional syllable. Thus : — 

James's; Miss Finch's [pron. James-ez, Fiiich-Sz]. 

Note 2. The only exception to the rule occurs in such expressions as conscience' 
sake, goodness' sake, righteousness' sake, Jesus' sake, where the apostrophe 
alone is added because another s would make too many hissing sounds. 

Note 3. In forming the possessive of compound nouns or of noun-phrases, the pos- 
sessive sign is always placed at the end. [§ 199.] Thus : — 

son-in-law's, sons-in-law's; his brother John's death; 

Martin Luther's hymn; William the Conqueror's reign. 

1 In our language nouns once had four cases to suit different uses, but now the com- 
mon form takes the place of three of them. 



118 NOUNS. 

EXERCISE 157. 
Write the four forms of each of the following nouns. Thus 





Sing. 


Plur. 


Common Form. 


child, 


children 


Possessive Form. 


child's, 


children 



Girl ; woman ; wife ; monkey ; mouse ; Miss Long ; lady ; chief ; 
dwarf; ox; swine; Mr. Adams; man; hero; thief; brother; deer; 
colony ; baby ; piano ; fox ; son-in-law ; German : attorney-general. 

208. The meaning of the possessive case may often be expressed 
by the use of the preposition of and its object. Thus : — 

"My uncle's death" or " The death of my uncle." 

EXERCISE 158. 

1. Write these expressions, using the possessive case instead of 
the prepositional phrase : — 



The residence of my sister. 

The wife of my brother. 

The manners of a gentleman. 

A photograph of the baby. 

The sting of a mosquito. 

The store of Mr. Brown. 

The decision of the court-martial. 

The top of the chimney. 

The retreat of the enemy. 



The singing of Miss Vokes. 
The stories of Howells. 
The lectures of Curtis. 
The novels of Dickens. 
The mother of James. 
The letters of Agnes. 
The army of Xerxes. 
The home of Adam. 
The home of Mr. Adams. 



2. Write the expressions in the first column, making every noun 
plural, and then write the equivalent possessive phrase. 

209. A possessive does not always show ownership. It may 
denote — 

1. Origin; as in — "I own Scott's novels," and "She uses But- 
trick's patterns." Or — 

2. Kind; as in — "He sells women's shoes and men's hats," and 
"She has a man's voice." 



USES OF NOUNS. 119 



EXERCISE 159. 

Change these expressions so as to show the meaning of the pos- 
sessives : — 

Children's clothing ; gentlemen's gloves ; Shakespeare's Pla}'s ; Edi- 
son's inventions ; Harper's Ferry ; my uncle's letter ; Colt's revolvers ; 
my mother's present; Harper's Magazine; Webster's speeches; 
Stuart's Washington. 

TEST QUESTIONS. 

1. What is meant by inflection? Give an example. 2. How is 
the plural commonly made ? 3. What words add es to form the plural ? 

4. Why should the plural of money and of lily be differently formed? 

5. What is peculiar about the plural of nouns ending in f ? 6. Give 
the plural of "court-martial" and of "handful." 7. How many case- 
forms have nouns ? 8. How is the possessive case of nouns formed ? 
9. What substitute may be used for a possessive? Illustrate. 10. 
Pluralize the italicized phrase in, " I like Miss Gary's poems." 



C. THE USES OF NOUNS. 

EXERCISE 160. 

Analyze these sentences, and tell the way in which the noun 
" diamond " is used in each : — 

1. Diamonds are found in Africa and India. 2. Brazil exports 
diamonds. 3. The most precious jewel is the diamond. 4. The 
countess wore a necklace of diamonds. 5. The diamond's lustre is 
unsurpassed. 6. This priceless gem, the Kohinoor diamond, origi- 
nally weighed eight hundred carats. 

210. There are eleven different uses which nouns may 
have in the expression of thought. Six of these uses we 
already know about. 



120 NOUNS. 

1. Nouns as Subject. 

211. A Noun may be used as Subject in a sentence of 
any sort. Thus : — 

(1) In an assertion or a supposition ; as, — 

The wind sways the tops of the trees. 
. If the leaves could stay the year round ! 

(2) In a question ; as, — 

Can woodpeckers make such large holes? 

(3) In a wish ; as, — 

Heaven give you all long life. 

May the forest fires never reach you. 

(4) In an exclamation; as, — 

How the trunk has been stripped of its bark ! 

EXERCISE 161. 

1. What nouns in Exercise 139 have the subject use ? 

2. Use these nouns, first as subjects of assertions, and then as 
subjects of questions: — 

Milk; cocoanuts ; palms; violets; vane; vein; rains; reins; Sicily; 
St. Louis ; Mars ; Mt. Blanc ; Csesar ; Hudson ; Cleopatra. 

2. Nouns as Subjective Complement. 

212. A Noun may be used as the Subjective Comple- 
ment of a copulative verb or of a passive verb-phrase. 
[See § 450.] Thus : — 

These trees are ancient landmarks. 



The strongest man became the chief of the tribe. 
The emperor of Russia is styled the Czar. 



NOUNS AS OBJECT. 121 

EXERCISE 162. 

1. Which nouns in Exercise 139 are used as subjective comple- 
ments ? 

2. Use these nouns as subjective complements : — 

Navigators ; mineral ; sphere ; governor ; president ; wanderer ; 
emblem ; capital ; Rome ; Europe ; intemperance ; Exodus ; poetry. 

3. Nouns as Object. 

213. A Noun may be used as the Object of a transitive 
verb or verbal word. Thus : — 

The snow bends the branches. 



By bending the branches the fruit may be reached. 
It is not easy to bend the large branches. 

EXERCISE 163. 

1. What nouns in Exercise 139 are used as object ? 

2. Use these nouns as the objects of transitive verbs : — 

Enemies ; books ; friends ; salt ; knowledge ; comets ; antelope ; 
obscurity ; tobacco ; poppies ; business ; St. Lawrence ; Alaska. 

4. Nouns in Prepositional Phrases. 

214. A Noun may be used in a phrase as the Object of 
a preposition. Thus : — 

The shadow of the tree reaches beyond the wall. 

EXERCISE 164. 

1. Which nouns in Exercise 141 are used in making preposi- 
tional phrases? 

2. Use these nouns in sentences as objects of prepositions : — 
Sea; mountains; Egypt; Bible; surface; skies; alacrity; swarms; 

shrewdness ; Nile ; prison ; Detroit ; pole ; compass ; perseverance. 



122 nouns. 

5. Nouns as Possessives. 

215. A Noun may be used as a Possessive. Thus : — 
The Indian's wigwam gave place to the settler's cabin. 

This is the only use that requires a special form of the noun. 

EXERCISE 165. 

1. Make a list of the possessive nouns found on some page of 
your reading-book. 

2. Use the possessive form of these words in sentences : — 
Speaker; Mr. Adams; lady; bees; physician; buffalo; daisies; 

Agnes; heroes; men; church; conscience; grottos; major-general; 
guides. 

Rules for the Use of Possessives. 

216. Sometimes the names of several persons are 
treated like a single noun in forming the possessive. 

Thus, if Parker and Ward is the name of a business firm, we 
treat it like a compound noun, putting the possessive sign at the end 
when we speak of Parker and Ward's business or mills. To say 
Parker's and Ward's business or mills would show that the men 
were in business separately, or owned different mills. 

EXERCISE 166. 

In the following expressions do we mean joint owners of the same 
thing, or separate owners of different things? 

1. Hall and Whipple's hotel. 

2. Elizabeth's and Mary's reign. 

3. William and Mary's reign. 

4. Rice and Besant's novels. 

5. Bulwer's and Thackeray's novels. 

6. Jackson's and Grant's administrations. 

7. Taylor and Fillmore's administration. 

8. Do you prefer Tennyson's or Whittier's poetry? 

9. Who were Cain and Abel's parents ? 



USE OF POSSESSIVES. 123 

217. Rule I. — («) To shoiu separate possession of dif- 
ferent things by several persons, use the possessive sign after 
the name of each. But — 

(ft) To show joint possession, use the sign after the last 
name only. 

EXERCISE 167. 
1. Change these expressions so as to show joint possession : — 

1. Gilbert's and Sullivan's operas. 2. Woodward's and Brown's 
pianos. 3. Warner's and Twain's Gilded Age. 4. Grant's and Sher- 
man's friendship. 5. Spain's and Portugal's alliance. 6. Beaumont's 
and Fletcher's dramas. 7. Hay's and Nicolay's Life of Lincoln. 

2. Change these so as to show separate possession : — 

1. Webster and Worcester's Unabridged Dictionary. 2. Steinway 
and Chickering's pianos. 3. Green and Macaulay's History of Eng- 
land. 4. Webster and Worcester's dictionaries. 5. Do you prefer 
Greenleaf or Wentworth's arithmetics? 6. Bancroft, Prescott, and 
Motley's History. 7. Lowell and Holmes's poems. 

3. Give two different phrases each implying that Noyes and Weeks 
own the same mine. How would you show that they own different 
mines? 

218. To express the idea of possession it is often better 
to use a prepositional phrase than to use the possessive sign. 
In this way we may avoid awkward forms or the unpleas- 
ant repetition of hissing sounds. Thus : — 

" In the reign of Napoleon the Third " is better than 

" In Napoleon the Third's reign " ; and 

" The houses of my father's partner" sounds better than 

" My father's partner's houses." So, instead of 

" Socrates's sayings " we may say — 

." The sayings of Socrates." Hence — 

219. Rule II. — Avoid harsh or aivkward expressions 
by using a prepositional phrase instead of a 



124 NOUNS. 

EXERCISE 168. 
Improve the following sentences according to Rule II : — 

1. What is the first governor of Rhode Island's name ? 

2. Did you hear the senator from New York's speech ? 

3. The conductor of the freight, train's excuse was insufficient. 

4. Remember my wife's sister's invitation. 

5. What is your college chum's father's business? 

6. Harper's Magazine's circulation is immense. 

. 7. Where are the architect of the post-office's designs. 

8. The Adamses' administrations covered eight years. 

9. This is Dr. Smith's the eminent surgeon's opinion. 

EXERCISE 169. 
Point out the errors in the use of the possessive, and give the rule 
violated. 

1. Barnes' History; mens' clothing ; a boys' kite. 

2. Lady's maids. Childrens' playthings. Everybodies' business. 

3. Where is Smith's and Jones's store ? 

4. This is the administrator of the estate's office. 

5. The January St. Nicholas's illustrations are admirable. 

6. Scott and Abbott's estimate of Napoleon differ greatly. 

7. Do you prefer Smith or Kitto's Bible Dictionary ? 

8. What do you think of the captain of the Dauntless's skill. 

9. Which is larger, the Mayflower or the Genesta's jib? 
10. This is Dr. Hill, the professor of rhetoric's, opinion. 

220. A possessive noun does the work of a phrase or of an adjec- 
tive, and, like an adjective, may be used without the noun it modifies. 
[See § 301.] Thus: — 

This poem is Longfellow's. 

6. Nouns as Appositiyes. 

221. A Noun may be used as an Appositive to explain 
another noun or a pronoun. Thus : — 

Homer, the famous Greek poet, was blind. 



INDIRECT OBJECT. 125 

The poem was dedicated to him, the author's early friend. 
(a) An appositive is sometimes connected by or or as with the 
word that it modifies. Thus : — 

The llama, or South American camel, is found among the Andes. 
John B. Gough, as a temperance lecturer, had no equal. 

EXERCISE 170. 

1. Point out the appositives in Exercise 128, and tell what each 
modifies. 

2. Use these words in sentences either as appositives or as modified 
by appositives : — 

DeSoto; telephone; simooms; Eli Whitney; bicycles; the equator; 
Franklin ; Sumner ; satellite ; Morse ; Niagara Falls ; Miss Alcott. 

7. Nouns as Indirect Object. 

222. A Noun may be used as the Indirect Object of a 
verb. Thus : — 

We have sent the superintendent an invitation. 

EXERCISE 171. 

1. Mention the object of each verb, and tell to whom or for whom 
something was done. 

1. They gave a whip to the driver. 2. He paid a hundred dollars 
to physicians. 3. I bought a horse for my brother. 4. Who painted 
the picture for your friend? 5. I asked questions of the teacher. 
6. We made a call on the Czar. 7. They gave the driver a whip. 
8. I sold the gentleman a carriage. 9. I bought my brother a horse. 
10. She built the king a castle. 11. We offered the lady a glass of 
water. 12. Did you lend Henry this book? 13. I have written my 
mother a long letter. 14. He made the man a coat. 

2. Read the last four sentences with the object next to the verb 
as in the first four. 

3. Change the first six so as to have the object at the end. 



126 NOUNS. 

223. Verbs like those in the preceding exercise often 
have two objects, — 

(1) One showing what is given, bought, etc., called the 
Direct Object, because it shows what the action directly 
affects ; and — 

(2) The other showing to whom or for ivhom something 
is given, bought, etc. This is called the Indirect Object, 
because it is less closely connected with the verb. 

224. AVhen the direct object comes first, the indirect object is ex- 
pressed in a prepositional phrase, introduced generally by to or for, 
sometimes by of or on, as in sentences 1-6, Exercise 171. 

EXERCISE 172. 

1. Read the following sentences, omitting the indirect object. 

2. Mention the direct and the indirect objects. 

1. He sent my sister some fine mosaics from Florence. 2. The king 
granted the offender a full pardon. 3. He showed his audience some 
rare views. 4. This land yields its owner large crops. 5. This mer- 
chant allows his customers large discounts. 6. Throw the man a 
rope! 7. The government granted the Pacific railroad large tracts of 
land. 8. He forgave the man that debt. 9. Can you teach an old 
dog new tricks? 10. The judge showed the culprit no mercy. 
11. Do you tell me the truth? 12. Can you bring us proofs? 
13. We paid the men four dollars. 

3. Read the sentences, substituting a prepositional phrase for 
the indirect object. 

4. Analyze the preceding sentences, treating the indirect object as 
a modifier of the verb. Thus : — 

(The) king granted [the offender] (a) (full) pardon. 

225. The Indirect Object of a transitive verb shows to 
whom or for ivhom the action is performed. 



NOUNS USED ADVERBIALLY. 127 

226. When a transitive verb is changed into a passive verb-phrase 
[§ 452], the direct object should be made the subject. Thus : — 

They gave [me] a cordial invitation 
is better changed to — 

A cordial invitation was given [me], — i.e. [to me], 
than to — 

I was given [a cordial invitation]. 

EXERCISE 173. 

Use the following verbs in sentences containing direct and indi- 
rect objects : — 

pay; find; sell; give; toss; make; return; deliver; write; lend. 

8. Nouns Used Adverbially. 

227. A Noun may be used Adverbially. 

EXERCISE 174. 

1. What kind of phrases may be used like adverbs ? 

2. What words or phrases modify the following verbs as adverbs 
would? Tell whether they show how much, how often, when, and 
so on. 

5. He came very recently. 



1. Have you been standing long ? 

2. We have been waiting for hours. 

3. You might have slept a few 

minutes. 

4. His burden weighs heavily. 

5. The load weighs several tons. 



7. They went away in the night. 

8. We met them last year. 

9. She arrived last Sunday. 
10. We buy a newspaper every 

day. 

11. Did you fall far? No; I fell a few feet, then slid several rods, 

and rolled the rest of the way. 

12. The steamer sailed due east three hundred miles the first day. 

228. We see from the preceding sentences that not 
only adverbial and prepositional phrases, but also nouns 



128 NOUNS. 

and noun-phrases may be used like adverbs. They may 
modify — 

We shall remain a week. 
Verbs : ■{ He has travelled a thousand miles. 

He was beaten several times. 

This is a pound heavier. 
Adjectives: -^ It is worth ninety cents. 

My ladder is ten feet long. 

f You might write a great deal better. 
Ad b J ^ e s ^ a ^ wa ^k a mile further. 
I A minute later all was lost. 
[ Where shall we be a hundred years hence? 

229. Nouns used adverbially may denote time, place, 
or manner, — showing when, where, or how ; but they 
generally denote measure, showing hoiv much, how far, etc. 



EXERCISE 175. 

1. Select the nouns used adverbially ; tell what they modify, and 
whether they denote measure, time, place, or manner. 

1. The sun sets fifty minutes later. 2. The moon rises an hour 
earlier. 3. They perished ages ago. 4. What is that coming this 
way? 5. A few years ago men were a month travelling a thousand 
miles. 6. Cowards die many times before their deaths. 7. A piece 
two inches wide and four feet long weighs three pounds and is worth 
one dollar. 8. He has crossed the ocean twenty times a year. 9. I 
w T alked the floor all night long. 10. Emperor William was ninety 
years old last Tuesday. 

2. Analyze the preceding sentences orally or in writing. 



9. Nouns Used Independently. 

230. A Noun may be used Independently in a 

sentence, — 



NOUNS USED INDEPENDENTLY. 129 

1. In calling to or addressing some person or thing; as, — 

Bring us some lilies, Mary. 

Gentlemen, have you agreed upon a verdict? 

We say of such nouns that they are used "indepen- 
dently in address" They are therefore sometimes called 
vocatives. 

2. In calling 1 attention to something not addressed ; as, — 

The wind, the wind ! hear how it roars ! 

Alas ! poor creature ! how she must have suffered ! 

We say of such nouns that they are used "indepen- 
dently in exclamation" 

(a) A noun used in either of these ways stands by itself as a 
separate part of the sentence, not being connected with it as the other 
parts are. 

EXERCISE 176. 
Select the nouns that are used independently, and tell whether 
they are used in address or in exclamation. 

1. "Drink, pretty creature, drink." 2. Give me of your balm, O 
fir tree ! 3. " What a fall was there, my countrymen." 4. " Soldiers, 
here you must either conquer or die." 5. "Our country! it is not the 
East with its broad-armed ports." 6. "Roll on, thou deep and dark 
blue ocean, roll ! " 7. Mr. President, my object is peace. 8. The 
Pilgrim fathers! where are they? 9. The flag of the free! O long- 
may it wave! 10. "Permit me, sir, to add another circumstance." 
11. "Youth ! " he said, "I forgive thee." 

12. "My country! 'tis of thee, 
Sweet land of liberty, 
Of thee I sing." 

10. Nouns Used with Participles. 

231. A Noun may be used with a participle that modi- 
fies it [§ 587] to make an adverbial phrase showing the 
time or cause of what is predicated. Thus : — 



130 NOUNS. 

Our commander being slain, we retreated. [Showing what caused 
the retreat.] 

My suspicions having been aroused, I began to watch him. [Show- 
ing why or when I watched him.] 

232. A noun used in this way is sometimes said to be used 
"absolutely." The entire phrase, however, is nsed as a substitute for 
an adverbial clause [§ 495], and really modifies the verb of the accom- 
panying assertion. The examples given above mean — 

We retreated because our commander teas slain. 

I began to watch him since my suspicions were aroused. 

EXERCISE 177. 

Tell how each verb is modified, and explain the use of the itali- 
cized nouns. 

1. His supplies having been exhausted, the general capitulated. 
2. We returned home, our work being finished. 3. The jury having 
been sworn, the trial proceeded. 4. The river being impassable, no 
attempt was made to cross it. 5. His trials (being) ended, he rests 
in peace. 

11. Nouns as Objective Complement. 

233. A Noun [or an adjective] may be used as the 
Objective Complement of a transitive verb. Thus : — 

Age makes a man feeble. Ice keeps water cool. 

Elizabeth made Raleigh a knight. Call your dog Bruno. 

EXERCISE 178. 

1. (a) What is a complement? (b) What is the complement of 
a transitive verb called? (c) What is a subjective complement? 
(d) What is completed by a subjective complement? (e) To what 
does it always refer? 

2. (a) Read the examples in § 233, omitting the last word. How 
does the omission affect the meaning? (b) What is the object of 
each verb? (c) To what are the adjectives added? 



OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT. 131 

234. In " Age makes a man feeble " the verb makes alone does 
not express the action performed on a man, for we need the adjective 
feeble to show what quality is produced in him. We mean not " Age 
makes a man," but " Age makes-feeble, or enfeebles, a man." 

So, too, the meaning of made in the second sentence is completed by 
the noun knight, which shows that knighthood was conferred upon 
Raleigh, — as if we had said "Elizabeth made-knight, or knighted, 
Raleigh." 

235. Words used to complete the meaning of a transi- 
tive verb, and at the same time to add some name or 
quality to the object of it, are called Objective Comple- 
ments, — " objective " because they refer to the object, 
and " complements " because they complete the predicate. 

EXERCISE 179. 

Select the objective complements, and tell how each is used. In 
making the analysis, underline the objective complement to show its 
connection with the verb, and inclose it in angles as a modifier of the 
object. Thus : — 

(The) snow paints (the) fields (white). 

1. Fear made the soldiers pale. 2. We shall tint our walls green. 
3. The people made Lincoln president. 4. Time makes the worst 
enemies friends. 5. The warm weather has made the ice thin. 6. The 
Turks call their ruler Sultan. 7. The people called Paul, Jupiter. 
8. The president has appointed Mr. Clark postmaster. 9. Get the 
horses ready immediately. 10. The club has chosen Roy captain. 
11. We have appointed Henry Wise our agent. 12. Lincoln set the 
slaves free. 13. The merchant sold his stock short. 

236. A word used as the complement of a transitive verb and 
referring to the object of it is called an Objective Complement. 

EXERCISE 180. 
1. Use these verbs in sentences with objective complements : — 



132 NOUNS. 

Struck ; make ; named ; appoint ; elect ; swept ; called ; dyed ; 
chose ; colored. 

2. What is it to analyze a sentence? How do you analyze a 
phrase ? 

Parsing*. 

237. We analyze a sentence by separating it into its 
elements, — words, phrases, or clauses, — and showing how 
each one is connected with some other ; if we then analyze 
each phrase and clause, we show how every word is used. 

But we need to be perfectly familiar with the forms and 
classes of words as well as with their use. To do this we 
must examine each word by itself, and follow some system 
in telling what is grammatically important about it. This 
is called parsing- the word. 

238. To parse a word is to tell what is of grammatical im- 
portance about it. 

239. We should analyze a sentence before we parse 
the words in it, for the forms and classification of words 
depend upon their use, and this we discover through our 
analysis. 

240. We should parse the words of a sentence in the 
following order : — 

I. The Base (subject, verb, complement). 

II. The Modifiers of the Base. 

III. The Secondary Modifiers, etc. 

IV. The Connective Words. 

241. In parsing 1 a word we should tell — 

1 To the Teacher. — While children are learning to parse, they should give all the facts 
they can about a word, with the reasons. As they progress, they may substitute briefer 
forms, and give only the more important facte. 



PARSING. 133 

1. The part of speech to which it belongs. 

2. In what subdivision of that part of speech it is found ; 
that is, what kind of noun, verb, adjective, etc., it is. 

3. Its grammatical form, — number, case, tense, etc. 

4. Its use or construction, or what it has to do with 
some other word. 

242. How to Parse a Noun. The following forms 
may be used in parsing nouns : — 

Alexander II. gave [the Russian serfs] (their) freedom [not 
many years ago]. 

Alexander II. is a noun, because it is a name ; proper, because it is 
a special name meant for one person only ; singular, because it denotes 
but one ; used as the subject of the verb gave, for it represents the 
person about whom the assertion is made. 

freedom is a noun ; abstract, for it names [a quality or] a condition ; 
singular ; used as the object of the verb gave, for it shows what was 
given. 

serfs is a common noun, because it is a name for any or all of a 
certain kind ; plural, because it denotes more than one ; used as the 
indirect object of gave, for it shows to whom freedom was given. 

years is a common noun; plural; used adverbially to modify ago; 
it shows how long ago the event happened. 

243. The following briefer form may be followed : — 
Alexander II. is a singular proper noun ; subject of the verb gave, 
freedom is a singular abstract noun ; object of the verb gave, 
serfs is a plural common noun ; indirect object of the verb gave, 
years is a plural common noun ; used adverbially to modify ago. 

244. In written parsing, abbreviate by using initial 
letters. Thus : — 

Alexander II. = spIST. ; S. of V. gave. 

freedom = saX. ; O. of V. gave. 

serfs = pcN. ; 10. of V. gave. 

years = pcN. ; used Advly to modify ago. 

[For abbreviations, see page 96.] 



134 NOUNS. 



EXERCISE 181. 
1. Analyze the following sentences, and parse the nouns : — 

1. Accent and emphasis are the pith of reading ; punctuation is 
but secondary. 2. The maize-field grew and ripened, and it stood in 
all the splendor of its garments green and yell6w. 3. We may cover 
a multitude of sins with the white robe of charity. 4. I was born an 
American; I live an American; I shall die an American. 5. How 
cunningly Nature hides every wrinkle of her inconceivable antiquity 
under roses and violets and morning dew. 6. Frequent the company 
of your betters. 7. Congenial autumn comes, the Sabbath of the year. 
8. It is the tint of autumn, a mighty flower-garland, blossoming under 
the spell of the enchanter Frost. 9. Five times outlawed had he been 
by England's king and Scotland's queen. 10. One morn a peri at 
the gate of Eden stood disconsolate. 

2. Parse the nouns on pages 8-10, Part I. 



D. DERIVATION. 



245. Let us see how names for so many different ideas have orig- 
inated. Some of our words are very old; but as people have always 
been finding new things that needed names, and having new thoughts 
that they wished to express, they have made many new words. 

246. Those words that have been made or derived 
from older ones by additions or other changes are called 
Derivatives, — whether they belong to one part of speech 
or another. 

Nouns have been made in various ways. 

247. Derivative Nouns. From other nouns are formed 

(a) Diminutives, to signify a thing of the same kind that is small 
or young ; as, — 

duck, duckling; lamb, laviblcin ; wave, wavelet ; goose, gosling ; hill, hillock. 



DERIVATION. 135 

(6) -Feminine nouns; as, — 

count, countess ; testator, testatrix ; hero, heroine. 

(c) Abstract nouns, to signify qualities, conditions, etc.; as, — 

slave, king, friend, child, patron, patriot, 

slavery, kingdom, friendship, childhood, patronage, patriotism. 

(d) Nouns that mean one who has to do with something ; as, — 

garden, senate, law, finance, cloth, science, music, team, 

gardener, senator, lawyer, financier, clothier, scientist, musician, teamster. 

(e) Nouns that mean the opposite to something ; as, — 
order, disorder; truth, untruth ; sense, nonsense ; ability, inability. 

248. What is put before a word to make a derivative 
is called a prefix ; as, in-, un-, dis-, non-. 

What is put after a word to make a derivative is called 
a suffix ; as, -ling, -ship, -ess, -er. 

EXERCISE 182. 

1. Define each of these words, using in your definition the word 
from which it is derived ; i.e., the priinitive word. 

Manikin ; leaflet ; ringlet ; lordling ; bullock ; governess ; goddess ; 
countess; duchess; prophetess; mistrust; dukedom; manhood; scholar- 
ship; heroism; missionary; songster; charioteer; physician; violinist; 
disobedience ; inattention ; imprudence ; displeasure ; non-resistance. 

2. What are the diminutives of these words : — 

leaf ; river ; isle ; lock ; cat ; stream ; globe ; dear. 

249. From adjectives are formed many abstract nouns 
that name the quality implied in the adjective ; as, — 



hard, 


kind, 


■ safe, 


wide, 


false, 


wise, 


pure, 


hardship, 


kindness, 


safety, 


width, 


falsehood, 


wisdom, 


purity. 



250. From verbs are formed — 

(a) Nouns denoting the actor or doer ; as, — 

sing, singer ; collect, collector ; beg, beggar. 

(b) Nouns denoting the act or what is done ; as, — 

learn, learning ; swim, sioimming ; paint, paintings. 



136 NOUNS. 



EXERCISE 183. 

Form as many nouns as you can from each of these verbs and 
adjectives, and use each noun in a sentence : — 

Write ; break ; drive ; give ; pass ; swear ; begin ; catch ; fight ; 
know ; spin ; think ; bright ; long ; civil ; brave ; houest ; free. 

251. Besides derivatives there are many words made 
by combining two or more older words. Such are called 
Compounds. 

252. Compound Nouns are generally noun-phrases con- 
densed into a single word, thus : — 

Sharp-shooter ; stronghold ; nothing ; fisherman ; beeswax ; sun- 
stroke ; star-fish ; by-word ; drawbridge ; block-head ; etc. 

EXERCISE 184. 

Tell of what these words are compounded, and try to explain how 
the principal noun is modified : — 

Wildfire ; anybody ; ill-will ; blank-book ; apple-tree ; she-bear ; 
sailor-boy ; merchant-tailor ; king's-evil ; jew's-harp ; solomon's-seal ; 
ratsbane ; book-keeping ; sea-shore ; rain-bow ; glass-house ; outlook ; 
after-thought ; under-brush ; instep ; pop-corn ; blow-pipe ; spelling- 
book ; fishing-pole. 



E. WHAT MAY BE USED AS A NOUN. 

253. Other parts of speech are sometimes used as nouns 
without being changed at all. 

254. Some words that were at first only Adjectives are now 
used also as nouns, often with both singular and plural forms ; as, — 

A great wrong. The rights of women. His equals. Your 
betters. My goods were burned. The ills of life. The blacks 
outnumber the whites. 



WHAT MAY BE USED AS A NOUN. 137 

255. A proper adjective is often used to denote the person or the 
language that would be described by it. Thus : — 

The Italians speak Italian. 

256. (a) Most adjectives, without taking a plural form, may be 
used as nouns to* mean the jwrsons ioho are so and so. Thus : — 

The rich and the poor meet together. The foolish may ape the 

wise. Respect the old. Educate the young. The best are not 

perfect. 

(b) Some are used to mean that tohlch is so and so ; as, — 

Stand by the right through thick and thin. Hold fast to the 

good. Deliver us from evil. The past is the guide to the future. 

Do you buy the best or the cheapest ? For better or for worse. 

The cold was intense. 

257. Sometimes a noun is easily supplied; as, — 

The left (side) of the stage. Through the thick (part) of his thumb. 

EXERCISE 185. 
1. Select the adjectives used as nouns, and explain what is 
meant by each one. 

1. The American commander had come. 2. We met the Ameri- 
cans. 3. He meant the German language. 4. We shall speak Ger- 
man. 5. Intemperance is a great evil. 6. Evil habits ruin us. 
7. The poor may become rich, and the weak, strong. 8. Beautiful 
things call for admiration. 9. We admire the beautiful. 10. Do you 
know the right from the left? 11. The dead were buried, and the 
wounded removed. 12. Separate the good from the bad. 13. The 
long and short of it. 

2. Use these words first as adjectives, and then as nouns : — 
Wise ; Indian ; proud ; studious ; ignorant ; Portuguese ; upper ; 

humble ; deep ; Methodist ; living ; hungry ; idle ; new ; rough. 

258. Adverbs also become nouns when they are nouns in mean- 
ing. Thus : — 

Now [i.e. the .present] is the best time. You must come before 
then [that time]. 



138 NOUNS. 

EXERCISE 186. 

What words, commonly adverbs, are here nouns : — 

1. It seems a long while. 2. For once you are right. 3. Do not 

say when if you mean where. 4. Try to understand the why and the 

wherefore. 5. It is a yard from here to there. 

259. Those forms of a Verb that are called infinitives (§§ 407 

and 553) are the names of some action, and are really verbal nouns, as 
we see from their use. Thus : — 

The baby has learned to walk. For exercise, try walking slowly. 
Walking is good exercise. 

260. A Clause may be used as a noun ; thus, in sentences like — 

What you say is true ; 

We knew that he would make trouble ; 

the subject of " is " and the object of " knew " are not ordinary nouns, 
but are clauses used like nouns. [See §§ 282 and 538.] 

261. A Phrase may be used as a noun ; thus, in the sentence — 

Up the Nile is a book of travels, 

the phrase Up the Nile, being the name of the book, does exactly 
what a simple noun would do. 

So, when we mention a word or a letter or a figure, as in — 



The 1 is silent in almond. 

Among is a preposition. 

The word erase means rub out. 



Do not say how for what. 
&c. is a form of etc. 
J is shaped like a hook. 



we use the words, among, erase, etc., not to connect or to assert, but 
only as their own names. 

262. We see, then, that any letter, or sign, or word, or group of 
words may be used as a name of something. 

263. To sum up : Whatever we think of and wish to 
mention we must represent by some spoken or written 
sign used as the name of it, and called a Noun. Some of 



TEST QUESTIONS. 139 

these expressions are always nouns, and some are only 
occasionally nouns. 

EXERCISE 187. 

Mention every expression that is used in these sentences as a noun, 
and explain what it is : — # 

1. In English words q is always followed by u. 2. Facetiously con- 
tains all the vowels in alphabetical order. 3. This poor fellow knew 
all the ups and downs of life. 4. The Antiques and Horribles 
paraded in the morning. 5. His bark is worse than his bite. 6. An- 
swer without any ifs or buts. 7. What is meant by the editorial 
" we " ? 8. " By the street of By-aud-by we reach the house of Never." 

9. Touch-me-nots and jack-in-the-pulpits grow on my grounds. 

10. "When rang his proud hurrah, and the red field was won." 

11. " I forgot " is a flimsy excuse. 12. Do you know why the birds 
sing? 13. Who wrote "Around the World in the Yacht Sunbeam" f 
14. The Scandinavians are learning to speak English. 15. "Kind 
words do not wear out the tongue " is a Danish proverb. 16. To 
relieve the wretched was his pride. 

TEST QUESTIONS. 

1. What is the meaning of the word noun? 2. What is the differ- 
ence between a common and a proper noun? 3. Which has the more 
of real meaning? 4. When do common nouns begin with capitals? 
5. Name four classes of common nouns. 6. What is a collective 
noun ? 7. What is an abstract noun ? 8. Classify these nouns : rye, 
folly, hero, corps, men. 9. Give two rules for making nouns plural. 
10. Write the plural of life, motto, grotto, larch, talisman, yeoman, d, 
genius, die, father-in-laic, spoonful, alley, ally. 11. What is the num- 
ber of alms, news, optics, deer, salmon, tongs, measles f 12. How do you 
pluralize a name with the title Mr., Dr., or Miss ? 13. What is the 
rule for forming the possessive case? 14. What besides ownership 
may the possessive case show ? 

15. How many uses has the noun? 16. Name them. 17. Which 
is the most common? 18. What does the indirect object show? 
19. What is an objective complement? 20. What is the difference 
between an objective complement and a subjective complement? 



140 NOUNS. 

21. How is joint ownership of the same thing shown? 22. Give an 
example. 23. How would you indicate separate ownership of differ- 
ent things? 24. What substitute for the possessive may be used? 
25. Write sentences using the noun hour in eight different construc- 
tions. 



NOUNS: SUMMARY. 



264. About Nouns we have learned to distinguish the 
following : — 

f Collective (col) 
Kinds 5 Common (c~) J Abstract (a) 



( Proper (p) | Material (m) 

I Gender (g~) 



Forms . . . . i Sin g ular (0 { (Common) (com) 
' ( Plural (p) \ Possessive (pos) 

Uses, or Constructions. 

1. Subject of the verb . 

2. Subjective complement of the verb . 

3. Object of the verb . 

4. Object of the preposition . 

5. Possessive form modifying the noun . 

6. An Appositive explaining the noun (or pro- 

noun) . 

7. Indirect object of the verb . 

( verb . ■) 

8. Used adverbially to ) adjecfcive . f Advly . 

modify the (^^ _ ^ 

9. Used independently in address (or exclama- 

tion). I. in A. (or E.). 

10. Used with the participle to make an 

adverbial modifier of the verb . with P. 

11. Objective complement of the verb , re- 

ferring to the object . OC. of V. 



s. 


of V. 


sc. 


of V. 


o. 


of V. 


o. 


of P. 




PF. 




A. 


IO. 


of V. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

PRONOUNS. 

265. We know that a noun, as " horse," is a word that 
represents only things of a certain kind, which it describes. 
A pronoun, as "that," is a word that may represent any 
thing without describing it. 

Although the pronouns are few in number, they are 
divided into several classes, and the most of them have 
much to do besides merely taking the place of nouns. 
[See § 53.] - 

A. KINDS. 
1. Personal Pronouns. 

EXERCISE 188. 

1. Which of the following pronouns refer to the person speak- 
ing? 

2. Which refer to the person spoken to? 

3. Which to the person or thing spoken of? 



1. Did you bring me a letter ? 

2. Your father sent it to my care. 

3. / asked him for his address. 

4. He wanted yours and mine. 

5. Does your sister know them ? 

6. We must inform our friends. 

7. They will forget us. 



8. She knows their plans. 

9. Tell her what ours are. 

10. Hers depend on theirs. 

11. Know ye its meaning? 

12. He telleth thee that thou mayst 

keep for thy share only what 
is thine own. 



4. If only one person is speaking, to whom must the pronouns we, 
our, ours, and us refer? 

5. Do any of the preceding pronouns show what kind of person is 
meant, — as a noun would ? 



142 PEONOUNS. 

266. Pronouns that of themselves show whether we 
mean the person speaking, the person spoken to, or 
some person or thing spoken of, are called Personal 
pronouns. 

267. (1) Pronouns of the first person always repre- 
sent the speaker, either alone or with others. 

They are I and its variations, — my, me: ive, our, us, etc. 

(2) Pronouns of the second person always stand for 
the person or persons spoken to. 

They are thou and its variations, — thy, thee ; ye, you, your, etc. 

(3) Pronouns of the third person generally refer to 
what has been spoken of. 

They are he, she, it, and their variations, — his, him; her; its; they, 
their, them, etc. 

EXERCISE 189. 

1. Select the personal pronouns in Exercises 43 and 45, and tell 
whether they are of the first, the second, or the third person. 

2. Collect the pronouns from Exercise 188 into three lists accord- 
ing to their person. 

3. To which of them can " -self " or " -selves " be added ? 

268. Myself, thyself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, and their plu- 
rals, are called Compound personal pronouns. 

269. A Personal pronoun is one that is always of the same 
grammatical person. 

2. Interrogative Pronouns. 

EXERCISE 190. 

1. Of what kind are the following sentences? 2. For what does 

who stand? which? what? 3. To what part of speech do these 

words belong? 4. For what purpose are they used? 5. What kind 

of sentence is made by putting the answers in place of the pronouns? 



ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 143 

1. Who discovered the Mississippi? — De Soto. By whom was 
the St. Lawrence discovered ? — Cartier. Whose discovery was made 
first ? — Cartier's. 

2. Which is the longer of the two rivers? — The Mississippi. 

3. What is the meaning of " Mississippi " ? — " Father of Waters." 

270. An Interrogative pronoun is one used to ask a question. 

The three interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what. 
The last two are sometimes used as adjectives. [§ 332.] 

271. The word for which an interrogative pronoun stands is 
unknown until it appears in the answer to the question. 

3. Conjunctive Pronouns. 
I. Clauses as Modifiers. — Adjective Clauses. 

EXERCISE 191. 

1. ragged children 

2. children in rags 

3. children who wear rags 

1. trustworthy boys 

2. boys worthy of trust 

3. boys that may be trusted 

1. From the first two expressions in each group explain the differ- 
ence between adjectives and adjective phrases. 2. In the sentences 
numbered 3, read the descriptive expressions. 3. To what part of 
speech do wear, -were, and may belong? 4. Mention the subjects, 
objects, or complements. 5. What does that stand for? 6. What 
does which refer to? 7. To what does who relate? 8. To what 
part of speech do these words belong? 

272. From the examples in Exercise 191 we see that 
a noun may be modified not only by an adjective ivord 
or an adjective phrase, but also by a clause, or group 
of words that contains a subject and a predicate. 



1. very hot 

2. days of intense heat 

3. days which were very hot 



144 PEOKOUNS. 

Thus in the sentence, — 

Regions that have no vegetation are called deserts, 



the expression that have no vegetation is used like an adjective 
to show which regions are meant, — as if we had said " regions 
without vegetation' 1 or "barren regions." 

273. A Clause is a union of subject and predicate used like 
some part of speech. 

274. An Adjective clause is a clause used as an adjective . 

EXERCISE 192. 

1. Select the adjective clauses, and tell what each one modifies 
or describes. 

1. I have read the book which you lent me. 2. The story that it 
tells is interesting. 3. The author, who is a woman, lives in Texas. 
4. Help those that are weak. 5. Invite the gentleman of whom you 
spoke. 6. He gave all that he had. 7. Those that are rich should 
help those that are poor. 8. A man who cannot govern himself is a 
slave. 9. Our journey, which was very tiresome, ended at last. 10. The 
friends whom we visited have come. 11. Remember those whose 
hearts are sad. 12. Read such books as will be helpful. 

2. By what words are the clauses joined to the words to which 
they relate ? 

275. In the last exercise we see that each clause is 
connected to the word to which it relates by what we call 
a Conjunctive or a "relative" pronoun denoting the same 
person or thing. 

276. The word for which a pronoun stands is called 
the Antecedent, because it generally "goes before" the 
pronoun. 

277. When its antecedent is expressed, a conjunctive 
pronoun may be called a relative pronoun. 



NOUN-CLAUSES. 145 

2 78. The four relative pronouns are who, which, that, 
and as. 

Who (whose, whom) represents persons only, which 
represents anything but persons, and that and as represent 
either. 

(a) As -which and that have no possessive form, whose is fre- 
quently used to represent something besides persons. It is generally- 
better, however, to use of which instead. 

(b) When as is a relative pronoun, it follows many, such, or same; 
as in, "I give thee such as I have"; "As many as wish may go" ; 
" Mine is the same as yours (is)." 

EXERCISE 193. 

1. Select the relative pronouns in Exercise 192, and point out 
the antecedent of each. 

2. Which of the relative pronouns would you use to represent each 
of the following words : — 

Book ; city ; cousin ; horse ; flowers ; soldiers ; rivers ; kings ; tea ; 
winter; Bismarck; tribes; armies; conquerors. 

3. Write sentences containing the preceding words modified by 
adjective clauses. 

II. Clauses as Part of the Base: Noun-Clauses. 

EXERCISE 194. 

-. ( Poor people may need help. j I saw the things which he gave. 

( The poor may need help. ( I saw what he gave, 

n j Cloth is the stuff that he sells, a ( That which you tell is true. 



(. Cloth is what he sells. \ What you tell is true. 

1. Read the expressions that are alike in meaning, but different in 
form. 2. Compare the subjects in the first pair of sentences, and show 
how the second subject is made from the first. 3. Find the adjective 
clauses, and tell what each modifies. 4. Do the antecedents stuff, 
things, that, add much to the meaning? Give your reason. 5, Read 



146 PRONOUNS. 

the sentences in which there are no antecedents. 6. Why is not an 
antecedent expressed ? 7. What pronoun is used in the clause when 
the antecedent is omitted? 8. What name would you give to a clause 
used like a noun ? 

279. We know that an adjective may be used without its noun 
when the meaning is perfectly clear ; as in, " The ignorant should be 
taught." 

From the preceding exercise we learn that an adjective 
clause may also be used without the modified word, when 
the meaning of that word would be indefinite. Used alone 
in this way it becomes a Noun-clause. Thus in — 

I saw \ m or >• which he brought, 
( the thing ) ■ 

the word that or thing has of itself so little meaning that we may as 
well omit it ; for it will convey the whole idea to say — 

I saw what he brought. 

So, too, the sentence " Employ whoever applies," is equivalent to 
" Employ anyone who applies." 

280. In noun-clauses we generally use what, whoever, 
whichever, etc., for the connecting or conjunctive pro- 
nouns. But we do not call them "relative," for they only 
imply another pronoun or a noun which is really the omit- 
ted antecedent. 1 

281. Noun-clauses may be subjects, objects, or subjective comple- 
ments, etc., like the antecedents which they replace. [§ 595.] 

EXERCISE 195. 

1. In these sentences explain the use of the italicized words and 
clauses : - — 

1. I saw his gifts. I saw what he gave. 2. Milk was her only sus- 
tenance. Milk was what sustained her. 3. I hear your remarks. I 

1 " What " formerly followed an antecedent; as in, " He gave rne that what I have." 



CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 147 

hear what you say. 4. You tell the truth. You tell what is true. 
5. Your work is excellent. What you do is excellent. 6. Idlers 
will fail. Whoever is idle will fail. 7. He will sell all his pos- 
sessions. He will sell whatever he owns. 8. Take your choice. 
Take whichever you choose. 9. He will fulfil his promise. He will 
do whatever he promises. 10. Think about your lessons. Think 
about what you study. 11. Whoever confesses will be forgiven. 
12. Whatsoever you ask shall be done. 13. Whosoever will may 
come. 14. Who steals my purse steals trash. 

2. Read each sentence with the noun-clause changed to a noun 
or a pronoun modified by an adjective clause. 

282. A Noun-clause is a clause having the use of a noun. 

283. A Conjunctive pronoun is one that connects a clause 
to the rest of the sentence. 

284. (a) The conjunctive pronouns what, whatever, whatsoever, 
who, whoever, whosoever, whichever, and whichsoever are used in noun- 
clauses. 

(&) The interrogative pronouns are also used in noun-clauses as 
connectives when a question is repeated indirectly as part of the 
reply to it. Thus : " Who wrote the book ? " — I do not know 
"who wrote the book." "Who did it" is a secret. Ask again 
"which he took." I will not tell "what it is." 



EXERCISE 196. 

1. Classify the clauses in these sentences, and tell how each is 
used : — 

1. He remembers ivhat he learns. 

2. Have you ascertained ivho wrote the letter ? 

3. Man can do what man has done. 

4. The fur which warms a monarch warmed a bear. 

5. Reputation is what ice seem, but character is what we are. 

6. Beauty is the mark that God sets on virtue, 

7. We shall never know who wrote the book. 

8. Whoever trusts him makes a mistake. 



148 PRONOUNS. 

9. Whatever he does shall prosper. 
10. The man who feels truly noble will become so. 
2. Point out the conjunctive pronouns, and tell which relate to 
an antecedent definitely expressed. Which two are interrogative ? 

4. Adjective Pronouns. 

EXERCISE 197. 

1. All have faded. 

2. Both were wrecked. 

3. Each shall be rewarded. 

4. Many were orphans. 

5. Much remains to be used. 

6. One was taken, and another was 
left. 

7. That was more expensive. 



1. All men are mortal. 

2. Both stories are false. 

3. Each hour is precious. 

4. Many books are worthless. 

5. Much time is wasted. 

6. One man's meat is another man's 

poison. 

7. That clock is too slow. 



1. Compare the italicized words in the two columns ; tell which are 
adjectives, and give your reason. 2. Do they describe, or only limit ? 
3. What does each one limit? 4. What noun may each of the itali- 
cized words in the second column have been used to represent? 

285. In the last exercise we see words that are some- 
times used as adjectives to limit the application of a noun, 
and sometimes as Adjective pronouns to replace that noun. 
Thus, in the sentence, — 

One can do only one thing at a time, 

the second one is a limiting adjective (§331), modifying "thing"; 
but the first one, having no noun expressed, is an adjective used as 
a pronoun. 

EXERCISE 198. 

Select the adjective pronouns, and tell the noun for which each 
is used. • 

1. Few shall part where many meet. 2. All that breathe will share 
thy destiny. 3. None are so deaf as those who will not hear. 4. This 
was the bravest warrior that ever buckled sword. 5. She had no for- 



ADJECTIVE PBONOUNS. 149 

tune, and I had none ; but that of my father was ample. 6. Some are 
happy, whereas others are miserable. 7. One ought to rely on one's 
self. 8. Such as I have, give I unto thee. 9. Both went to the war, 
but neither returned. 10. Both of these are good, and I will take 
either. 11. An hour or so had passed. 

286. The principal words used as adjective pronouns 
are : — 

All, another, any, both, each, either, few, former, latter, many, more, 
most, much, neither, none, one, other, own, same, several, some, such, this, 
that, these, those. 

Some of these words often have enough of descriptive meaning to 
be called nouns. 

287. Each, either, and neither are called distributives, because 
they refer to a number of objects taken separately. 

This, that, these, and those are called demonstratives when they 
point out objects definitely. He, she, they, etc., have a similar use in 
such sentences as " He that w r ould thrive must rise at five." 

288. An Adjective pronoun is a limiting adjective used with- 
out its noun. 

EXERCISE 199. 

Say to what class each pronoun belongs, and give your reason. 
Thus*: — 

"I" is a. personal pronoun, for it always represents the speaker. "What" is a 
conjunctive pronoun, for it connects a clause to the rest of the sentence. 

1. It is I. 2. We are frail. 3. You and he are strong. 4. Few 
are stronger. 5. Who knocks? 6. To whom shall they go? 7. Is 
this the house which he built? 8. Which are they? 9. Did you call 
us? 10. That on the hill is his. 11. Which is yours? 12. Thou art 
she whom he calls. 13. Bring what he wants. 14. What is his 
name? 15. I cannot tell what his name is. 16. I that speak unto 
you am he. 17. Many are called, but few are chosen. 18. I have 
none to go w T ith ine. 19. We respect those that respect themselves. 
20. We often deceive ourselves while trying to deceive others. 21. God 



150 PRONOUNS. 

helps those that help themselves. t 22. How poor are they who have 
no patience. 23. Who is he that calls us traitors? 24. Such as I 
have give I unto thee. 



B. INFLECTION: CHANGES OF FORM. 

1. Number. 

289. Fourteen pronouns have, like nouns, two number- 
forms. They are : — 

(1) The five personal \ SlN <>. I; thou; he, she, it. 

pronouns : ^ Plural, we ; ye, you : they. 

(2) The five compound personal pronouns : 

Sing. myself; thyself, yourself; himself, herself itself 
Plural, ourselves; yourselves; themselves. 

(3) Four adjective pro- £ Sing. this; that; one; other. 

nouns: ^Plural, these; those; ones; others. 

290. All other pronouns have but one form, which is 
used either with a singular or with a plural meaning. 

(a) Another, each, either, neither are always singular in meaning; 
and both,feio, many, several are always plural in meaning. 

EXERCISE 200. 

1. Tell whether these pronouns have a singular or a plural 
meaning : — 

This; we; you; few; she; them; who; myself; both; us; they; 
each ; these ; such ; which ; he ; that ; many ; ourselves ; either ; who- 
ever; themselves; several; all; those; who; it; any; some; another; 
neither. 

2. Give the other number-form of such of the preceding pronouns 
as have two forms. 



CASE-FOBMS. 151 



2. Case. 

EXERCISE 201. 

1. I left my trunk behind me. 

2. Thou art the Creator, and thy works praise thee. 

3. He sent his army on before him. 

4. They obey their parents, and honor them. 

1. Whom do the pronouns in the first sentence represent? 2. Give 
the use of each one. 3. How does the form change with the use? 
4. In No. 2 mention the pronoun used as subject; as possessive ; as 
object. 5. Do they represent the same person? 6. Why do they 
differ in form? 7. In Nos. 3 and 4 how are the forms of the pro- 
nouns changed ? 8. How do you account for these changes ? 

291. We see from the preceding exercise that besides 
a possessive form some pronouns have still another special 
form, which is required whenever they are used as objects. 

Thus, besides wlio, we have the possessive form whose, 
and the object, or objective form whom, which is used 
when the pronoun is the object of a verb or of a preposi- 
tion ; as in, — 

Whom did you mention f For whom is it ? 

292. Eight pronouns, — 

I, thou, he, she, it, who, whoever, whosoever, 

have three case-forms or cases : — 

(1) The possessive, to show ownership; 

(2) The objective, required when the pronoun is used as an ob- 
ject; and — 

(3) The subjective or nominative form for all other uses. 

" Nominative " means merely naming. 

293. Cases are the different forms of nouns and pronouns 
required by the construction. 



152 



PRONOUNS. 



294. To give all the singular and plural case-forms of 
a pronoun is to decline it. Thus : — 



First Pekson 



( Singular. 
I Plural. 



Nominative. 
I 
we 



Possessive. 
my, mine 
our, ours 



Second Person . J Singular, 

( Plural. 



Sing. Mai 



Third Person . . < 



Singular or Plural 
in meaning. 



Sing. Fern. 
Sing. Neut. 
Plural. 

Nominative. 
who 

whoever 
whosoever 



(thou) (thy, thine) 

(ye) you your, yours 

he his 

she her, hers 

it its 

they their, theirs 



Objective. 
me 
us 

(thee) 
you 

him 
her 
it 
them 



Possessive. 
whose 
whosever 
whosesoever 



Objective. 
whom 
whomever 
whomsoever 



(a) Thou, thee, etc., are now used chiefly in solemn 
address, or in poetry. The plural you commonly takes 
the place of thou and may denote one person only. 

■(b) The possessive forms of these pronouns are adjectives by use, 
and may be called possessive adjectives. [See § 138.] 



EXERCISE 202. 

1. Name the case of these pronouns. Which are plural forms ? 
Her ; him ; thine ; them ; who ; ours ; its ; I ; their ; ye ; whose ; 

thee ; whom ; us ; hers ; thy ; our ; you. ; me ; my ; it. 

2. Learn the ten nominative forms ; the nine objective forms. 
Which two forms are either nominative or objective ? Which one is 
either possessive or objective? 

295. Three pronouns — one, other, another — like nouns, 
have a special form only for the possessive use. Thus : — 

Singular : one, one's ; other, other's ; another, another's, 
Plural : ones, ones' ; others, others'. 



USES, OR CONSTRUCTIONS. 153 

296. Most pronouns, however, are not used as pos- 
sessives, and have but a single form for all their con- 
structions. 

Either's and neither's are sometimes used; but the phrases of either, of neither, 
would be better. 

3. Gender. 

297. He, she, and it are gender-pronouns. He rep- 
resents a male, and is of the masculine gender ; she 
represents a female, and is of the feminine gender ; it 
generally represents that which has no sex, and hence 
is said to be of the neuter gender. 

(a) He is often used to represent an antecedent that applies to 
both males and females. As in, — 

Has any person lost his gloves ? 

(6) In sentences like " The child cries for its mother," " Shoot the 
crow if you see it," we use it, because the sex is either unknown or 
unimportant. 

298. Personification. We sometimes speak of things as if 
they were persons, and use masculine or feminine pronouns in refer- 
ring to them. Such objects are said to be personified. Thus : " The 
sun his ceaseless course doth run." "Nature in her robes of green." 



C. USES, OR CONSTRUCTIONS. 

299. Pronouns have all the constructions, or uses in 
sentences, that nouns have. Three or four of these 
uses, however, are rare ; and relative and interrogative 
pronouns are mostly used in one of the first five ways. 
[See page 140.] 

300. An interrogative pronoun generally precedes the verb, and 
there is sometimes a doubt whether it is used as subject or as sub- 
jective complement. We can always decide, however, by noticing the 



154 PRONOUNS. 

construction of the word that takes its place in the expected reply. 
For example : — 

Who is it? It is vour mother. 



"Which is mine ? The small one is yours. 
"What was he? He was a clergyman. 

Here who and what must be subjective complements, for so are 
mother and clergyman, the words they represent. For a simi- 
lar reason, which is a subject. 

EXERCISE 203. 
Tell the use of each pronoun in these sentences: — 
1. He liveth long who liveth well. 2. Who is it?— It is I. 3. We 
have found them. What is it that you have found ? 4. In what did 
you travel? We sent to him by her for this. 5. Whose carelessness 
caused this ? Our defeat was their victory. One's manners show 
one's breeding. 6. He himself hath said it. They each and all 
declined to go. 7. He gave one of them permission, and she told 
us the secret. 8. Each stepping where his comrade stood the instant 
that he fell. [§ 228.] What is it worth? 9. "O Thou who hearest 
prayer ! " "O happy we ! thus blessed." 10. This being the case, 
we shall not go. 11. The will makes the house yours. You may as 
well call it such. [§ 236.] 

301. Most personal pronouns have two possessive 
forms, — one used like an adjective to modify a follow- 
ing noun, as in " my hand," " your heart," — and the 
other used to take the place of a noun, as in " mine 
is here," " this is yours." 

(«) His is used in either way; as "his land," "Ms was a useful 
life." 

(b) Mine and thine are sometimes used like my and thy before a 
word beginning with a vowel sound ; as " mine own," "thine honor." 

302, The second of the possessive forms may be used in any 
construction, and with singular or plural meaning. Thus; — 



ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 155 

That tongue of hers will make trouble. 

Thine is the glory. Bring theirs, but leave ours. 

" Wealth is not his that has it, but his that enjoys it." 

(a) These words are much like adjective pronouns, and may be called such. 
(6) Do not use the apostrophe in writing ours, yours, theirs. 

303. It is frequently used as the temporary or anticipative sub- 
ject of a verb, the real subject of which is a word or an expression 
that comes after it [§ 560]. As in, — 

It is always best (to try). It is true (that health makes wealth). 

304. It is sometimes used indefinitely without an antecedent. 

As in, — 

It rains. It will freeze to-night. 

Analysis of Complex Sentences. 

305. A Complex sentence is one that contains a clause. 

Sentences containing conjunctive pronouns are there- 
fore always complex. 

306. If a compound sentence contains a clause, it be- 
comes of course a compound complex sentence. 

307. In analyzing complex sentences the directions 
given on pages 94-97 may generally be followed. 

In written analysis adjective clauses may be enclosed like other 
modifiers, and the use of noun-clauses may be shown by underlining 
them entire. The base of a clause may be marked by lines drawn 
over subject, verb, and complement. 



Examples. — 1. (The past is (a) (shadowy) page (which keeps 



[forever] (the) record (of our lives)). 

1. This is a complex assertive sentence, [Cx A. = A ; ajc.]. 

2. Formed of the principal assertion and an adjective clause. 

3. B. of A. = past is page. 

4. M. of S. = aj. the. 



156 PEONOUNS. 

5. M. of SC. page = ajs. a, shadowy; ajc. which keeps forever the 

record of our lives. 

6. B. of ajc. = which keeps record. 

7. M. of S. which = ■ . 

8. M. of V. keeps = &v. forever. 

9. M. of 0. record = aj. the; pph. of our lives. 

2. Nothing is troublesome (that we do [willingly]). 

Note. — Conjunctive pronouns used as complements always precede their verbs, as 
in the sentence above. 

3. "Whoever does (a) (good) deed is [instantly] ennobled. 

1. This is a complex assertive sentence. [Cx A. = A ; nc] 

2. Formed of a principal assertion with a noun-clause for its 

subject. 

3. B. of A. = nc. is ennobled: 

4. M. of V. is ennobled = av. instantly. 

5. B. of nc. = whoever does deed. 
•6. M. of O. deed = ajs. a, good. 

4. (The) lecturer told [us] what he had seen [during his journey]. 

Cx A. = A ; nc. And so on as before. 



EXERCISE 204. 

Analyze the following sentences : — 

1. Who owned the farm that was sold? [Cx Q. — Q ; ajc] 2. Tell 
me what you have learned. [Cxi. — Com; nc] 3. The gentleman 
who called is a physician. 4. He is a man that I esteem highly. 
5. Show me those that you have finished. G. We shall send him 
whatever he demands. 7. Do you know for whom the gift is meant? 
8. Have you heard what caused the fire? 9. I know what you want. 
10. Ask her who he is. 11. We prize that which we obtain by effort. 
12. This is the book from which he read the story. 13. My lord, I 
know not what the matter is. 14. People almost never do anything 
in anger of which they do not repent. 15. He who was taught only 
by himself had a fool for a master. 16. Nature is loved by what is 
best in us. 17. There is no secret of the heart which our actions do 



PARSING. 157 

not disclose. 18. Reputation is what we seem, but character is what 
we are. [CCxA. = 2A; 2 lie] 19. Beauty is the mark that God 
sets on virtue. 20. What man has done man can do. 21. Is this the 
sole reward for which you have done so base a deed ? 

308. How to Parse a Pronoun. A pronoun is parsed 
b} r giving its 1. hind; 2. antecedent ; (3. person;*) (4. num- 
ber f) (5. case;) 6. use; and (7. declension). 

The following forms may be used : — 

1. (My) mind (to me) (a) kingdom is. 

My is a personal pronoun; represents the speaker; first person; 
singular number ; possessive case ; used to modify the noun mind. It 
is declined : — 

Sing. Norn. I, Pos. my or mine, Obj. me; 

Plu. Nom. we, Pos. our or ours, Obj. us. 



2. Those (that waste (their) youth) lose what they can [never] 



Those is an adjective pronoun ; represents " those persons " ; plural 
number ; used as subject of the verb lose. 

That is a relative pronoun ; antecedent those ; used as the subject 
of the verb waste. 

What is a conjunctive pronoun ; antecedent omitted ; used as the 
object of the verb can regain. 

309. In written parsing initial letters [see page 158] may be 
used as follows : — 

my = pP. ; ant. speaker; 1st, siug., pos.; mod. N. mind, 
those = aP. ; means those persons ; pi. ; S. of V. lose. 

that= rP. ; ant. those; S. of V. waste, 
what = cP. ; O. of V. can regain. 

EXERCISE 205. 

1. Parse the pronouns in Exercises 199 and 204. 

2. Illustrate, in sentences, seven constructions of pronouns. 



158 



PRONOUNS. 



310. 



SUMMARY: PRONOUNS. 



Kinds <! 



Personal (p 

Conjunctive (c 
Relative (r 

Interrogative ( 
_ Adjective (a 





' First (1st) ) 




Second (2d) r Person 




Third (3d) * 




Singular (s) } __ 
Plural (p) ; Numbe 


) Forms < 




Masculine (m) ) G d 




Feminine (/) > 




Nominative (nom) \ 


ige 140.] 


Possessive (pos) > Case 




. Objective (obj) ) 


EXERCISE 206 





Constructions. [See page 140.] 



Analyze the following sentences, and parse the nouns and pro- 
nouns : — 

1. He that would have the kernel must crack the shell. 

2. We tire of those pleasures that we take, but never of those that 
we give. 

3. The truly great man is he who does not lose his child-heart. 

4. The tongue is the only weapon that can heal the wounds that 
it makes. 

5. What is really best for us lies always within our reach. 

6. Reputation is what men and women think of us ; character is 
what God and the angels know of us. 

7. The most precious acquisition is that of a friend. 

8. How calmly may we commit ourselves to the hands of Him 
who bears up the world. 

9. What seem to us but sad funereal tapers may be heaven's dis- 
tant lamps. 

10. He that would honor win must not fear dying. 

11. Who speaks the truth stabs Falsehood to the heart. 

12. What men call luck is the prerogative of valiant souls. 

13. The only faith that wears well and holds its color in all 
weathers is that which is woven of conviction. 

14. What a man knows should find expression in what he does. 

15. He most lives who thinks most, feels the noblest, acts the best. 



AGREEMENT. 159 

D. ERRORS IN THE USE OF PRONOUNS." 
1. Wrong Number-forms. 

EXERCISE 207. 

1. A tree is known by - fruit. 

2. Deciduous trees shed leaves annually. 

3. Neither of the ships lowered colors. 

4. Let each person do best. 

5. Even a child is known by doings. 

6. Both the regiments laid down arms. 

7. Each pupil must provide own books. 

8. No faithful girl will forget duties. 

1. What is meant by the antecedent of a pronoun? 2. In the 
first two sentences, would you fill the blanks with " their " or 
" its " ? 3. Give your reason, and explain the number of both 
pronoun and antecedent. 4. In the third sentence, does the sub- 
ject " neither " mean one or more than one ? 5. Will " their " cor- 
rectly represent it ? Give your reason. 6 . In the next two sentences, 
why may we not use " their " to represent person and child ? 7. Fill 
the blanks in the remaining sentences with " their," " her," " its," or 
" his," as you may think best. 8. When is the singular form of a 
pronoun to be used ? 9. The plural ? 10. The feminine ? 

311. We must be careful always to use a singular 
pronoun to represent a singular antecedent, and a plural 
pronoun to represent a plural antecedent. 

It is incorrect to say, — 

Every man of you must polish their own armor, 

for the plural pronoun " their " does not correctly represent the sin- 
gular antecedent " man." We should say, — 

Every man of you must polish Ms own armor. 

312. Agreement. A pronoun must agree with its antece- 
dent in number, gender, and person. 



160 PRONOUNS. 



EXERCSSE 208. 

Fill the blanks with suitable pronouns, giving the reason for your 
choice. Thus : — 

" Neither had discovered his mistake." The singular antecedent " neither " must be 
represented by the singular pronoun his. A pronoun must agree in number with its 
antecedent. 

1. Neither had discovered mistake. 2. Each contributed what 

could, o. Every one stoutly maintained innocence. 4. The 

beaver shows great skill in constructing dwellings. 5. Every- 
body must look out for . 0. A person should control wrath. 

7. When one is ill, will call a physician. 8. If you find Little 

Women, send to me. 9. This is such bad news that I can- 
not believe . 10. England expects every man to do duty. 

11. Each workman must provide own tools. 

12. Sharpen my shears so that will cut. 13. Which of the 

two finished work first? 14. Let each esteem others better than 

. 15. A person may make happy without wealth . 16. Let 

each of the girls take place. 17. A person's manners frequently 

show morals. 18. After you have read My Girls, return to 

me. 19. If thine enemy hunger, feed . 20. If anybody knows, 

must not tell. 21. Many a man will sacrifice reputation 

for a trifle. 22. If anybody calls, tell to wait. 

313. Antecedents joined by AND. Singular antece- 
dents connected by "and" must be represented by a plural 
pronoun when they denote different things, but by a singu- 
lar pronoun (1) when they denote the same thing, or (2) 
when they are kept separate by the use of " each" " every" 
"many a" or "no" Thus: — 

Martha and Mary (two persons) w T ept for their brother. 

The secretary and treasurer (one person) has resigned his office. 

Each leaf and each flower can speak its Maker's praise. 

Every maple and every elm will have shed its leaves. 

Many a flower and many a gem may have its beauty hidden. 

No friend and no acquaintance gave me his aid. 



WRONG NUMBER-FORMS. 161 



EXERCISE 209 

Supply a suitable pronoun in each of these sentences, giving the 
reason for your choice : — 

1. Joseph and Benjamin rejoiced to see father. 2. Cultivate 

good temper and kind feeling : presence will make all about you 

happy; 3. Envy and hatred make -^ — possessor unhappy. 4. Pov- 
erty and wealth have each own temptations. 5. Each officer and 

each soldier will be permitted to retain arms. 6. "My classmate 

and companion had completed studies. 7. Every steamer and 

every train had complement of passengers. 8. Every lady and 

every gentleman must register name. [See § 315.] 9. The 

husband and father cannot support family. 10. Every city and 

village and farm furnished quota of soldiers. 

314. Antecedents joined by OK or NOR. Use a sin- 
gular pronoun to represent singular antecedents connected by 
or or nor. Thus : — 

Either the president or the cashier must add his signature. 
Neither Harrison, Taylor, nor Garfield completed his term of office. 

315. In referring to singular nouns of different gender we must 
use pronouns of different gender, or else change the form of the sen- 
tence. Thus, we may say, — 

Every boy or girl may keep his or her books, or 
All the boys and girls may keep their books. 

It is wrong, of course, to say, " Every boy or girl may keep their 
books/' If there were a singular pronoun that could refer to either 
males or females, we might not be tempted so often to use " they " 
incorrectly. 

EXERCISE 210. 

Read these sentences, supplying a suitable pronoun, and giving 
a reason for your choice, according to § 314. Thns : — 

"]STeithor Henry nor Thomas had paid his fare." 

The singular pronoun his must be used to represent the singular nouns " Henry " and 
" Thomas," which are connected by " r.or," and hence are to be taken separately. 



162 PEONOUKS. 

1. Neither the lawyer nor the physician will give services. 

2. If thy hand or thy foot offend thee, cut oft'. 3. Where can 

I buy a good house or farm, if I want ? 4. Neither Alfred nor 

Ellen recited lesson perfectly. 5. No man nor woman ever hurt 

health in this way. 

316. Collective Antecedents, Represent a collective 
noun by a singular pronoun when you refer to the collection 
as a whole,' arid by a plural pronoun when you refer to the 
individuals of the collection separately. Thus : — 

The committee has transacted its business. 
The jury have returned to their homes. 

EXERCISE 211. 

Fill each blank with a suitable pronoun, giving the reason for 
your choice. 

1. The audience kept seats till the close. 

2. The jury had not brought in verdict. 

3. The House will elect speaker next Monday. 

4. The Board of Aldermen will be divided in opinion. 

5. Our club will go if a majority of members vote to do so. 

6. The Post will install officers next week. 

2. Wrong Case-forms. 
EXERCISE 212. 

1. How many pronouns have three casos ? 2. What are their 
names ? 3. Decline " I," " she," and " who." 4. Which are the five 
most common uses of pronouns ? 5. W 7 hen a pronoun shows owner- 
ship, what form does it have? 6. Judging from the name, what uses 
require the objective form ? 7. The subjective or nominative form ? 

317. When we use the pronouns that have three case- 
forms, we must be careful to use only the nominative 
forms as subjects and subjective complements, and only 



WRONG CASE-FOBMS. 163 

the objective forms as objects of verbs or of prepositions. 
Thus : — 

I go. It is I. Follow me. Give me liberty. Bring the book 
to me. 

318. Rule for Subjects, etc, — Never use one of the 
nine objective case-forms, — me, us, thee, him, her, them, 
whom, whomever, whomsoever, — as a subject or as a 
subjective complement. 

EXERCISE 213. 
Correct the following sentences. Thus : — 

" It wasn't me that did it." Incorrect. The objective me is used in place of the nom- 
inative I as the subjective complement of ivas, contrary to the rule, "Never use one of 
the nine objective case-forms as a subject or as a subjective complement." The sentence 
should read, " It wasn't /that did it." 

1. You and me will go together. 2. Why shouldn't us girls form a 
club ? 3. Thy father says thee must obey. 4. I should go if I were 
him. 5. You said, it was her that called. 6. Them that have want 
more. 7. I do not know whom it will be. 8. Reward whomever is 
deserving. 9. Whom do you think it is ? 10. It is not us who are 
to blame. 11. AVas it her that came last? 12. You have been 
slower than me. 13. Few can entertain an audience better than him. 
14. I do not think it could have been them. 15. She knows better 
than you or me. 16. Them that do well should be rewarded. 17. It 
was not us that you told. 18. How much older are you than her? 
19. Where are you and him to stay? 20. Who will ask for it, you or 
me ? 

319. Hule for Objects. — Never use one of the ten nomi- 
native forms, — I, we, thou, ye, he, she, they,' who, 

whoever, whosoever, — as the object of a verb or of a prep- 
osition. 

EXERCISE 214. 
Correct the following sentences, giving your reason. Thus : — 

"He has invited you and I." Incorrect. The nomiuative lis used in the place of 
the objective me as the object of the verb has invited, contrary to the rule, "Never use 
the nominative 1 as the object of a verb or of a preposition." The sentence should read, 
" He has invited you and me." 



164 PRONOUNS, 

1. Let this be a secret between you and I. 2. Who did they 
choose? 3. I want you and he to go. 4. Nothing is too good for 
you nor she either. 5. Who did you see ? 6. Tell me who you 
mean. 7. There was no one to go except she and her mother. 8. I 
wanted you and he to come again. 9. Who is this package for? 
10. They that honor me I will honor. 11. Send whoever you choose. 
12. I will give it to whosoever you select. 13. Who did he appoint 
as executor? 14. This is for you and I. 15. Let's we bring the 
sleigh. 

EXERCISE 215. 

Read the sentences, using that form of the pronoun which you 
think is correct. Give the reason for your choice. 

1. Was it you or (I, me) that made the mistake? 2. It was in- 
tended for either you or (him, he). 3. (Who, whom) did he send 
with you? 4. Was it (him, he) (that, who, whom) you met at my 
uncle's? 5. Be careful (who, whom) you admit to your friendship. 
6. No matter (who, whom) the poor fellow is, help him. 7. All 
(which, that) I have told you is between you and (I, me). 8. (Who, 
whom) shall we send in his place? 9. The committee did not agree 
in (its, their) opinion. 10. We saw the procession with (their, its) 
banner. 11. The best man (who, that) ever lived may be basely 
slandered. 

12. There are few better men than (he, him). 13. Each of them must 
answer for (themselves, himself). 14. (Whom, who) besides him do 
you think was rewarded? 15. Nobody should praise (themselves, 
himself). 16. Can you forgive (we, us) girls, for our folly? 17. We 
saw the prisoners and the flags (who, which, that) were captured. 
18. Every man and boy took off (their, his) hat. 19. Please explain 
the phenomena: I do not understand (it, them). 20. That distin- 
guished orator and statesman will give (their, his) lecture to-night. 
21. Bring me the Pleasures of Hope. You will find (them, it) in the 
library. 22. Neither the king nor the queen wore (his, her, their) 
royal robes. 23. The oath was administered to such witnesses (that, 
as) were present. 

320. An appositlve pronoun requires the objective case-form only 
when in apposition with an object. Thus : — 



CHOICE OF PEONOUNS. 



165 



Honor thy mother, her who loves thee well. 
We will write to each other, you and I. 

321. A pronoun used independently or with a participle 
should generally have the nominative case-form. Thus : — 

" Thou who nearest prayer ! " "He failing, who shall succeed? " 

322. The complement of "to be " used as an indirect predicate 
must have the objective case-form. [§ 568.] Thus: — 

I knew it to be him. He thought them to be us. Whom did 
he suppose me to be ? 

EXERCISE 216. 

Read each of these sentences several times, using different pro- 
nouns to fill the blanks, when possible. Thus : — 

It is I. It is you. It is ice. Itisfte. It is she. Ii\6 they. 



1. It is . 

3. Is it ? 

4. It is not — 

5. and — 

6. Neither — 

7. and - 



2. It was 

No, it is — 

— nor 

— will go. 

- nor 

saw — 



went. 
— and 



8. Those are for 

9. He mistook — 

10. Do you know 

11. He knows 



and - 

- for 

it is ? 

it was. 



12. did he meet? 

13. knew it was - 

II. was it to be ? 

15. If were , 

send . 



would 



10. It can't be . 17. It must 

be . 

18. Was it ? No, it was . 

19. It was and . 

20. They saw and . 

21. , , and are going. 

22. had more than . 

23. He stood between and 

21. Is this for or ? 

25. Do you know he sent ? 

26. He knows it is for. 

27. were they with ? 

28. She knew it to be either 

or . 

29. did you take to be? 



3. Choice of Pronouns. 

323. Of the relative f)^onouns, who stands for persons 
only, which for other things, and that for either. 



166 PEONOUNS. 

That, rather than who or which, should be used, — 

(1) After a superlative adjective. Thus : — 

The wisest man that ever lived. 

(2) After same, all, and the interrogative who. Thus : — 

The same friend that I visited. All that was left. Who that 
heard the orator can forget him ? 

(3) After antecedents denoting both persons and things. 

Thus : — 

He spoke of the men and cities that he had seen. 

Why not " whom he had seen " or " ivhich he had seen" ? 

324. It is often better to use that, rather than "who " or "which," 
in restrictive clauses ; that is, in clauses that limit the application of 
the antecedent by showing ivhich ones or how many, etc., are meant. 
Other adjective clauses state an additional fact about the antecedent, 
and may be called explanatory or appositive clauses. For example : — 
Restrictive. Franklin was the commissioner that negotiated the treaty. 
Appositive. Congress appointed a commissioner, who negotiated the 

treaty. 

325. Punctuation. Rule. — Appositive clauses must be 
set off by commas. 

326. Use each other in speaking of two objects ; one another, of 

more than two. As in, — 

David and Jonathan loved (each) other. 

How do the months compare [with (one) another]? 

Each and one are generally in apposition with the subject of the 
verb ; other and another with the object. 

EXERCISE 217. 

1. Fill the blanks with who, ivhich, or that, and give the reason for 
your choice. 

1. He was deceived by the friend in he trusted. 2. A new 

party arose, opposed the National Bank. 3. These are the same 



CHOICE OF PEONOUNS. 167 

persons assisted us before. 4. Who are those were intro- 
duced to us ? 5. All I said did not influence him. 6. They have 

not forgotten the friends and the home they have left. 7. Is 

that the regiment of you are a member? 8. He was the first 

reached the New World. 9. The surgeon, was a very skil- 
ful man, saved my friend's life. 10. The family I visited cannot 

be the one to you refer. 

2. Point out the errors in the following sentences : — 
1. The tribes of Southern Africa resemble each other. 2. Either 
of the five will help you. 3. The two nations are suspicious of one 
another. 4. We saw a ship that its masts were cut away. 



TEST QUESTIONS. 

1. Name four classes of pronouns. 2. Name those that are always 
of the same "person." 3. What two uses have conjunctive pronouns? 
4. What is a clause? 5. An adjective clause? 6. A noun-clause? 

7. Of what kind are pronouns that introduce adjective clauses? 

8. What is a complex sentence? 9. Which pronouns have two num- 
ber-forms ? 10. Name the eight pronouns that have three case-forms. 
11. Give the nine objective case-forms. 12. Use who in five different 
constructions. 13. Mention three rare uses of the personal pronouns. 
14. What determines the number-form of a pronoun? 15. In what 
constructions must the nominative case-form be used? 16. The 
objective ? 17. When must a singular pronoun represent a collective 
noun ? 18. AVhat is the rule for the number of a pronoun that repre- 
sents two singular nouns ? 19. Parse the pronouns in the following- 
selection : — 

He liveth long who liveth well ; 

All else is life but flung away ; 
He liveth longest who can tell 

Of true things truly done each day. 
Then fill each hour with what will last ; 

Buy up the moments as they go ; 
The life above, when this is past, 

Is the ripe fruit of life below. 



CHAPTER IX. 



ADJECTIVES. 



[Review pages 37-4G.] 



EXERCISE 218. 



1. Any bright, intelligent child. 

2. Some poor anthracite coal. 

3. Which planet is brightest ? 

4. Chasms, dark and dreadful. 

5. Six tall Russian soldiers. 

6. That road looks cheerless. 



7. Several large Asiatic lions. 

8. What plants are poisonous ? 

9. Those three decaying trees. 

10. Every tenth man was lame. 

11. All the written evidence. 

12. This water tastes salt. 



1. What is an adjective? 2. Which of the preceding adjectives 
describe what is mentioned? 3. Which show hoio many are meant? 
4. Mention those that merely show which ones are referred to without 
describing them. 5. What is a predicate adjective? 6. Mention those 
used above. 7. Name the adjectives used to ask questions. 8. The 
two derived from proper nouns. 9. Those that are made from verbs. 
10. Those that show quantity. 11. Which besides the predicate -ad- 
jectives follow the nouns that they modify ? 



A. KINDS. 

327. Most adjectives are words that may be added to 
a noun to describe the object named by showing that 
it is of a certain kind or quality, or that it is in a certain 
state or condition. As, — 

white snow ; skilful surgeons ; wounded men ; daily walks. 

Such adjectives often limit the application of a noun to those of 
a certain kind, a.s ;n the last three examples. 



DESCRIPTIVE AXD LIMITING ADJECTIVES. 169 

328. All other adjectives do nothing else but deter- 
mine or limit the application of a noun by showing which 
ones, how many, or what quantity. As, — 

this brook ; the fourth day ; six perch ; few trout ; much rain. 

329. A Descrijytive adjective is one that describes what is 
mentioned. 

330. Descriptive adjectives derived from proper nouns are called 
proper adjectives. Those that are forms of verbs are called parti- 
cipial adjectives. Thus : — 

Brazilian diamonds ; fatiguing journeys ; decayed wood. 

EXERCISE 219. 

From the following nouns form proper adjectives to fill the 
blanks in the sentences : — 

Genoa, France, America, Spain, Persia, Venice, Italy, China, Japan, 
Turkey, Greece, Mexico, Africa, Shakespeare, Malta, Brazil. 

1. navigators sailed under the flag. 2. The flag and 

the flag have three colors each. 3. carpets and rugs 

are imported. 4. lanterns and fans are sold here. 5. The 

windows have blinds. 6. He is an excellent reader. 

7. "Which are more valuable, or diamonds? 8. He played 

several airs. 9. DraAV a cross and a cross. 10. We 

met two , a . and several . 11. Cochineal is a 

product. 

331. A Limiting adjective is one that merely shows which 
ones, how many, and so on, without describing. 

332. Limiting adjectives include the following : — 

I. The two Articles, — the ; an or a. 

(«) The is the definite article, used with either singular or plural nouns to point out 
some particular thing or thing6. 

(ft) An or a is the indefinite article, used with singular nouns to show that we mean 
either one only or any one. 

II. Numeral adjectives, — showing how many or which one of a 
peries, how large apart, etc. As, — 



170 v ADJECTIVES. 

March contains thirty-one days, or four weeks and three days. 
Pronounce the third word on the ninety-first page. A tenth part 
is smaller than a sixth part. 

III. The Interrogative adjectives, — which and what. As, — 
"Which road leads to Rome ? What cities were destroyed ? 

IV. The Conjunctive adjectives, — which and what, with their 
compounds, used to introduce a noun-clause, or to connect it to the 
rest of the sentence. As, — 

Do you know what presidents died in office? 

Send me whatever facts you may obtain. 

We have not heard which army was victorious. 

Some conjunctive adjectives are relatives, and some are interrogatives, 

V. Possessive adjectives, — nouns and pronouns like Mary's, my, 
Ms, etc., which are adjectives by use. [See §§ 138, 355.] 

VI. Demonstrative adjectives, — this, that, these, those, and yonder, which point 
out objects definitely. 

VII. Distributive adjectives, — each, every, either, neither, and many a, which 
refer to objects singly. 

EXERCISE 220. 

1. Classify the adjectives in Exercise 139. 

2. Construct ten sentences, each containing a limiting and a 
descriptive adjective. 



B. INFLECTION: CHANGES OF FOKM. 
Comparison. 

EXERCISE 221. 

1. Lake Erie is a large lake. 

2. Lake Michigan is larger than Lake Erie. 

3. Lake Superior is the largest lake in the world. 

1. Mention the descriptive adjectives in these sentences. 2. What 
two lakes are compared? 3. With reference to what quality are they 
compared? 4. Which of the two has that quality in the greater 
degree? 5. What change in the form of the adjective is made to 



COMPARISON". 171 

show this? 6. With what is Lake Superior compared? 7. What lake 
is of greater size than Lake Superior? 8. What lake has the quality 
of size in the highest degree? 9. In these comparisons what changes 
do you notice in the form of the adjective? 

333. Many adjectives are changed in form to show that 
one object has more of the quality than others with which 
it is compared. 

Thus, without making a comparison, we say, — 

This is a high mountain ; 

but, to show T that another mountain with which we compare it has the 

quality of height in a greater degree, we add er to the adjective, and 

say, — 

Mt. Lafayette is a higher mountain. 

And if we wish to show that one mountain among all those we are 

considering has the quality of height in the greatest degree, we add 

est to the adjective, and say, — 

Mt. Washington is the highest mountain in the state. 

334. To add er and est to an adjective that it may 
denote different degrees of a quality is to compare it. 

335. Comparison is a change in the form of an adjective to 
denote different degrees of the quality. 

336. The positive degree of an adjective is its simple, 
unchanged form. As, tall, heavy, sad. 

The comparative degree is the form that ends in er. 
As, taller, heavier, sadder. 

The superlative degree is the form that ends in est. 
As, tallest, heaviest, saddest. 

EXERCISE 222. 
1. Tell which degree of these adjectives is given : — 
Happier; nobler; musty; clearer; slower; nearest; hot; proper; 
bright ; slender ; small ; politer ; fairest ; luckiest ; surest. 



172 



ADJECTIVES. 



2. Compare the following adjectives [see §415] : — • 

Thin; feeble; strong; merry; lofty; brave; short; jolly; pretty; 
red; coy; gloomy; keen; shy; rough; great; mighty; lovely; idle; 
profound. 

3. Which change y to i ? Which really add only r and st ? Which 
double the last consonant? 

337. Irregular comparison. The following adjectives 
are compared in an irregular way, — sometimes by quite 
different words : — 

Positive. 

Late 

Near 

Old 

[In] 

[Out] 
[Up] 

Note. The words in brackets are adverbs. Several other superlatives are made 
adding -most instead of -est. As, — 

northern, northernmost; southern, southernmost. 

338. We have learned (§ 130) that by using adverbs as modifiers 
adjective phrases may be formed denoting various degrees of quality. 
Thus : — 

cold, slightly cold, rather cold, very cold, uncommonly cold, 
extremely cold. 

339. In this way, by using the adverbs less and least, 

we may represent degrees of quality below the positive ; 
and, by using more and most, we may form adjective 
phrases, which are equivalent to the inflected forms in er 
and est. Thus : — 



Positive. 


Compara- 
tive. 


Superla- 
tive. 


Good > 
Well ) 


better 


best 


Bad > 

in ; 


worse 


worst 


Little 


less 


least 


Many > 
Much ) 


more 


most 


[Forth] 


further 


furthest 


Far 


farther 


farthest 


Fore 


former 


t first 

1 foremost 



Compara- 


Superla- 


tive. 


tive. 


j later 


( latest 
( last 


( latter 


nearer 


( nearest 
I next 


| older 


j oldest 


( elder 


I eldest 


inner 


( inmost 
( innermost 


outer 


( outmost 
( outermost 


upper 


uppermost 



ADJECTIVES NOT COMPARED. 173 

r more polite ( most polite 
least polite ; less polite ; polite ; 1 ° r -s or 

( politer ; ( politest. 

340. Adjectives that are not Compared. Since to 
most adjectives we cannot add er and est without making 
awkward or ill-soimding words, we must use these equiva- 
lent adjective phrases in comparing objects. 

Thus we say " a more remarkable adventure," "the most porous sub- 
stance," and not " remarkabler " or "porousest." 

341. The adjectives to which er aud est may be added are words 
of one syllable and a few words of two syllables, chiefly those ending 
in y or le. As, — 

Happy, hearty, ready ; noble, able; polite, mellow, etc. 

342. A few adjectives denote qualities that cannot exist in dif- 
ferent degrees, and hence they can neither be compared nor modified 
by more and most. As, — 

Dead, chief, square, equal, principal, spherical, etc. 

Note. Such forms as rounder, straighter, truest, are sometimes used as if they 
meant more nearly round or straight, or nearest true. 

EXERCISE 223. 

1. Change the comparatives and superlatives to equivalent 
adjective phrases, and change the phrases to equivalent adjectives. 

Handsomer ; more shallow ; most sincere ; fittest ; more handy ; 
sauciest ; most ample ; narrowest ; slenderest ; more nimble ; braver ; 
gentlest. 

2. Change them all to phrases denoting lower and lowest 
degrees. 

3. Tell which of the following adjectives are not compared, and 
give your reason : — 

Luscious; empty; hollow; supreme; wrong; tenth; deaf; particu- 
lar; false; vain; fashionable; naked; honest; lucrative; void; these; 
blind; equal; fatal; dry; wet; best; mean; dutiful; level. 



174 ADJECTIVES. 

343. Number. Only two adjectives, this and that, 

change their form when used with nouns plural in 
meaning. Thus : — 

this kind; these varieties ; that reason; those reasons. 

(«) A or an, another, each, either, neither, niany a, much, and one are 
used ouly with singular nouns; and hoth, many, several, sundry, clivers, and 
most numeral adjectives, only with plural nouns. 



C. USES, OR CONSTRUCTIONS. 

344. An adjective may stand in several different relations to the 
word that it modifies. 

345. I. (a) An adjective may be closely connected with 
its noun as an attribute, or part of the name. Thus : — 

Those | brave soldiers prepared for the | coming battle. 
(V) Or it may be used separately, as an appositive. 

Thus : — 

The enemy, equally brave, began the conflict. 
Cool and resolute, they awaited the onset. 

346. II. It may be joined to a copulative verb as a 
X>redicate adjective, showing what is asserted of the sub- 
ject. Thus : — 

The contest was long and bloody, and the result seemed doubtful. 
(a) When an adjective [or a noun] is the complement of one of the 
infinitives or participles of a copulative verb, (1) It may refer to some 
word in the sentence. As in, — 

Each army strove to be victorious. He tried to become king. 
Having been successful, we pursued the enemy, 
or (2) It may be used abstractly, without reference to any noun ; as in, — 
To be intemperate is to be miserable. Being good is one way 
of doing good. To become a scholar is a laudable desire. 

347. III. An adjective may be joined to a transitive 
verb or verbal word as an objective complement to com- 



PASSING. 175 

plete its meaning and at the same time add a quality to 
the object of it. [See § 283.] As in, — ■ 

His troubles made him insane. We tried to make him com- 
fortable. 

348. The objective complement shows that a quality or condi- 
tion is a result of the action expressed by the verb ; as in, — 
The blow struck him dead. 
Sometimes the quality is indirectly asserted [§ 568] as already be- 
longing to the object, as in, — 

We found this exercise healthful, 

Note. When a transitive verb is changed to a passive verb-phrase (§ 452), not only 
does its object become a subject, but its objective complement becomes a subjective com- 
plement. 

His inventions made Fulton (famous). 



Fulton was made famous [by his inventions]. 

349. Adjectives used as Other Parts of Speech. When 
used alone to represent an object, descriptive adjectives become nouns 
(§§ 254-257), and limiting adjectives become pronouns (§ 285). Many 
adjectives are also used as adverbs (§ 511). 

350. How to Parse an Adjective. To parse an adjec- 
tive we have to tell only its (1) kind, (2) form, — if com- 
parative or superlative, — (3) use. 

These forms may be followed : — 

1. % u (Full many a) gem (of purest ray serene) 

(The) (dark), (unfathomed) caves (of ocean) bear." 



2. Do you know (what) (American) historian was blind? 



3. (Which) king (of England) had (six) wives 



many-a is a limiting adjective ; used to modify gem. 
purest is a descriptive adjective; superlative ; used to modify ray. 
American is a proper, descriptive adjective ; used to modify historian, 
what is a conjunctive adjective ; used to modify historian. 



176 ADJECTIVES. 

blind is a descriptive adjective ; used as subjective complement of was, 

and referring to historian, 
which is an interrogative adjective ; used to modify king, 
six is a numeral adjective ; used to modify wives. 

351. In written parsing we may use initial letters as 
abbreviations. [See page 177.] Thus : — 



many-a =lAj.; mod. gem. 

purest =dAj.; sup.; mod. 
ray. 

American = pAj. ; mod. histo- 
rian. 



what =cAj.; mod. historian, 
blind = dAj. ; SC. of was, refers 

to historian, 
which = iAj. ; mod. king, 
six =nAj.; mod. wives. 



EXERCISE 224. 
Analyze these sentences, and parse the adjectives : — 

1. Gentle rains revive the thirsty fields. 2. Firm-paced and slow, 
a horrid front they bore. 3. Calm and serene as the iron walls 
around him, stood Regulus the Roman. 4. Many amusements ap- 
pear harmless which are really dangerous. 5. The painting looks 
attractive, but the artist does not seem satisfied. 6. A few critics 
have pronounced it perfect. 7. The government considered him com- 
petent to command. 8. Make the house where gods may dwell 
beautiful, entire, and clean. 9. Many try in vain to be happy. 

10. The people found their new ruler to be cruel and blood-thirsty. 

11. Appearing honest and being honest are very different things. 

12. You must tell me about what things you see. 13. Medicine only 
made the patient worse. 14. To be prodigal in youth is to be needy 
in age. 15. Which course would you advise him to take? 16. What- 
ever efforts you make will be rewarded. 17. Fortune may make a 
man famous, but it cannot make him great. 18. It finds him poor; 
it makes him rich. 



SUMMARY: ADJECTIVES. 

352. To sum up : An adjective is a word that adds to 
the meaning of a noun or a pronoun, without asserting 
anything nor standing by itself as a name. 



DERIVATION. 177 

353. r ... f Proper (p) 

Descriptive (r/) ^ _, f . . . . . Vf ; 
v J ( Participial (part) 

Kinds -j (Numeral (n) 

Limiting (/) -j Interrogative (i) 
(_ Conjunctive (c) 

C Positive (p^s) 

Forms <| Comparative (comp) 
t. Superlative (swp) 

Uses, or Constructions. 

1. Modifies the noun (or pronoun) . 

2. Subjective Complement of the verb (inf. or part.) . 

(a) Referring to . (b) Used abstractly. 

3. Objective Complement of the verb (inf. or part.) . 

354. Derivative and Compound Adjectives. It is often easy 
to see that an adjective has been made from another word by some 
addition or other slight change. [See §§ 245-248.] Thus : — 

(1) From nouns ; as, brutal, " like a brute." 

(2) From other adjectives ; as, blackish, "somewhat black." 

(3) From verbs; as, tiresome, "such as tires." 

Sometimes two words are put together into one that is full of 
descriptive meaning when applied to something named. Thus: — 
blue-eyed, " having blue eyes " ; sky-blue, " blue as the sky" ; 
evergreen, "that stays green." 

355. Nouns used Adjectively. The possessive case of nouns 
is often, as we know (§ 138), used with the force of an adjective, as 
in "the man's arm" ; and so at times is many another noun, as in, — 

an iron bar ; night winds ; bird stores ; the Lake region. 

But such nouns have not quite become adjectives, for we cannot say 
"the wind is night." 

356. Adverbs used Adjectively. In expressions like — 
the room beyond ; she was away ; the outside appearance, 



178 ADJECTIVES. 

and in many others, we see words that are ordinarily adverbs serving 
the purpose of adjectives, as if we had said, — 

yonder room ; she was absent ; the external appearance. 

EXERCISE 225. 

1. Tell from what word and what part of speech each adjec- 
tive is derived. Explain the change of form and the change of mean- 
ing. 

Wooded ; slavish ; senseless ; manly ; irregular ; educated ; dis- 
honest; teachable; southern; bloody; wondrous; unwise; Turkish; 
quarrelsome; swollen; deadly; impure; careful; lasting. 

2. Change each adjective to a phrase of the same meaning: — 
Everlasting; ankle-deep; childlike; pitch-dark; out-spoken; hope- 
ful ; heart-rending ; four-footed ; overdone ; sea-girt ; old-fashioned ; 
water-tkht : homesick. 



D. EKROKS IN THE USE OF ADJECTIVES. 
EXERCISE 226. 

1. Which of these lines is more easily read? Give what you think 
is the reason. 

a ark, a eel, a imp, a oak, a urn, aAour; an one, an unit, 
an ark, an eel, an imp, an oak, an urn, an 7*our ; a one, a unit. 

2. How many objects are referred to in each of these expressions ? 
Give your reasons. 

1. A rich and a poor man. 2. A long and rough road. 3. A 
short and a pleasing story. 4. The easiest and the most direct route. 
5. A red, a white, and a blue flag. 6. A red, white, and blue flag. 
7. A fashionable and an intellectual woman. 8. The rich and the 
generous man. 9. A wealthy and benevolent gentleman. 

357. A or An. A should be used only before words 
beginning ivith consonant sounds, and an before words 
beginning with vowel sounds. Thus : — 



EREORS IX THE USE OF ADJECTIVES. 179 

A house, an honor ; a wonder, a one, an onion, an ounce ; a yew, 
a ewe, a use, a unit, a eulogy, an urchin, an uncle. 

Note. One begins with the consonant sound of w, and long u begins with the con- 
sonant sound of y. 

358. Article repeated* When tivo or more connected 
adjectives describe different objects, the article is used with 
each ; but when they describe the same object, the article 
is used with the jirst only. Thus: — 

A pink and a white dahlia (two flowers). 
A pink and white dahlia (one flower). 

359. Agreement. An adjective that denotes one, or more 
than one, must agree in number with the noun that it limits. 
Thus we should say, — 

" This kind," not " these kind" ; " three feet wide," not " three foot 
wide"; "that sort," not "those sort"; "six pounds of tea," not "six 
pound." 

360. Such expressions as a few, a dozen, a great many, a hundred, ten thou- 
sand, three hundred sixty -Jive, two and a half, may be considered adjective phrases 
when they modify nouns. 

361. Them. Never use them as an adjective. 

Expressions like "them books," " thern things," are among the 
worst errors. 

EXERCISE 227. 

Correct the following sentences, giving your reason for the changes 
made : — 

1. Brutus was a honorable man. 2. This is an universal truth. 
3. He was a kind and an indulgent parent. 4. Omit the first and 
second stanza. 5. The poor and rich have equal rights. 6. She was 
married to a dignified and a kindly man. 7. I prefer these kind of 
rugs. 8. Did they use those hose at the fire ? 9. You must avoid 
those sort of people. 10. Drowned in six fathom of water. 11. I 
haven't seen him for this two weeks. 12. We must catch them horses. 



180 ADJECTIVES. 

362. Adjectives not compared. Do not compare adjec- 
tives so as to make ill-sounding or meaningless forms. 

Say the most awkward fellow, not the awkwardest ; and more nearly 
square, rather than squarer. 

363. Double Comparison* Do not modify compara- 
tives by more nor superlatives by most. 

For " They could not find a more worthier man," say, "a worthier 
man" or "a more worthy man." In "This is the most unwisest 
course," omit either most or st. 

364. Forms Confused. Use the comparative form in 
comparing two objects, ' the superlative in comparing more 
than two. Thus : — 

Which is better, — health-or wealth? 
Which is best, — health, wealth, or learning? 

365. Other misused. Do not spoil a comparison by 
wrongly inserting or omitting the word other. Thus : — 

"New York is larger than any city in America," should of course 
be " than any oilier city in America " ; and " Rhode Island is the 
smallest of all the other States," should be " of all the States." 

366. Adverbs for Adjectives. Do not use an adjective 
where an adverb is needed. 

" Not " move slow" but " move slowly " ; not " real good," but 
" really or very good." 

EXERCISE 228. 

Correct the following sentences, giving your reason : — 

1. Go very quick. 2. I never heard a more truer remark. 3. Which 

is largest, — the numerator or the denominator? 4. Which is the best 

actor, — Booth or Irving? 5. Speak loud and distinct. 6. This is the 

most quietest part of the city. 7. Let such an one rise, if present. 



TEST QUESTIONS. 181 

8. I never saw any thing neater done. 9. Which is nearest the north 
pole, — Europe or Asia? 10. This copy is very perfect. 11. Were you 
weighed on that scales? 12. He is the awkwardest skater on the pond. 
13. Of all my other friends, I like him best. 14. Brother Charles is 
taller than any member of our family. 

TEST QUESTIONS. 

1. Explain the difference between descriptive and limiting adjec- 
tives. 2. Name three classes of limiting adjectives. 3. Use which as 
a conjunctive adjective. 4. Why is ichat sometimes called a conjunc- 
tive adjective? 5. How and why are adjectives compared? 6. What 
substitute is there for the comparative degree? 7. When is the super- 
lative degree used? 8. What adjectives are not compared ? 9. How 
do you discriminate in the use of a and an f 10. Mention three errors 
to be avoided in the use of adjectives. 11. Parse the adjectives in the 
following selection : — 

Thanks for the heavenly message brought by thee, 

Child of the wandering sea, 

Cast from her lap forlorn ! 
From thy dead lips a clearer note is born 
Than ever Triton blew from wreathed horn ! 

While on mine ear it rings, 
Through the deep caves of thought I hear a voice that sings : — 

Build thee. more stately mansions, O my soul, 

As the swift seasons roll ! 

Leave thy low-vaulted past ! 
Let each new temple, nobler than the last, 
Shut thee from heaven with a dome more vast, 

Till thou at length art free, 
Leaving thine outgrown shell by life's unresting sea ! 

O. W. Holmes. 



CHAPTER X. 

VEEBS. 
[Review Chapter V.] 

367. The life of a sentence is the verb that it con- 
tains ; if we take that away, no matter how many words 
remain, the meaning is generally gone. 

368. Whatever object is in our thought we can mention 
by its name, using such nouns as — 

earth, men, sun, fires, heat, trees ; 
but when things move, or act, or endure; that is, when 
they begin to do or to be something, what we then have to 
say about them can be expressed only by verbs. With 
these — 

(1) We may declare or predict that "The earth re- 
volves"; "Men will work"; "The sun gives light"; 
"Fires are hot"; 

(2) We may ask — "Is heat a power? " and — 

(3) We may command — " Burn the trees." 



A. KINDS. 
EXERCISE 229. 



1. Which verbs in Exercises 87 and 110, describe the subject as 
moving f 2. In Exercise 96, which as doing something ? 3. In Ex- 
ercises 87 and 88 find five that describe the subject as having some- 
thing done to it. 



COMPLETE AXD INCOMPLETE. 183 

369. Though in a general way all verbs are alike, and 
though each has a meaning of its own, it is easy and neces- 
sary to divide and group them into certain classes. 

370. We have already found that the verb alone is 
sometimes quite enough to make a finished predicate ; as 

in — 

The earth revolves. The sun rises. 

But sometimes it seems only to have begun what another 
word must finish ; as in — 

The sun gives — light. The earth is — a sphere. 

Hence we class verbs as Complete and Incomplete. 

371. Incomplete verbs, or those that need comjilements, are 
again divided into classes as follows : — 

Copulative verbs connect the complement to the sub- 
ject which it describes ; as, — 

Fire is hot. We were without food. Heat is a force. 

Transitive verbs need an object to show what the action 

affects; as, — 

The sun gives light. Burn the trees. 

EXERCISE 230. 

1. Supply subjects to these verbs, and complements -where they 
seem to be needed : — 

Screamed ; stays ; fly ; ate ; cut ; punished ; grew ; drink ; seek ; 
depart; talked; tears; looks; seemed; saw; were; became; found; 
arm; wore; feels; had; spoke; are; was. 

2. Explain the difference between the two kinds of comple- 
ments that you have added. 

3. Is the case of a pronoun always the same when it is used as a 
complement ? What does " transitive " mean ? 



184 VEEBS. 

372. Of these three kinds of verbs, complete, copulative, and transi- 
tive, the two that are not complete may, of course, be called incom- 
plete, and the two that are not transitive may be called intransitive. 

373. The same verb may belong to different classes, 

according to the different senses in which it is used. Thus, 

in the sentence — 

The trees grow, 

the verb grow is complete and cannot take an object; in — 

Stones grow old, 
the verb is incomplete and copulative, for it needs the 
complement " old " to describe the subject ; and in — 

The florists grow cuttings under glass, 
grow is still incomplete, but it is transitive since its com- 
plement, instead of describing the subject, is an object, 
showing what the action affects. 

374. Copulative Verbs. No verb is always copula- 
tive, and only a small number are ever so ; one of them 
however is extremely common, namely, Ibe, which — with 
its various forms, am, is, was, were, etc. — helps to make 
many verb-phrases ; as in — 

" We are -waiting," for "We wait." 

(a) Be is sometimes used like " exist " as a complete verb with 
more of its original meaning ; as in — 

The time was, when no one lived here ; There is a God ; 
but generally it seems only to connect the subject to what is asserted 
of it. 

(b) Be enters into the meaning of all other copulative verbs. 

Thus : — 

He appeared wise = was wise in appearance. 

The clouds look distant = are distant to the sight. 
The water tastes bitter = is bitter to the taste. 
So with feel, sound, smell, become, seem, etc. 



COPULATIVE AND TRANSITIVE. 185 



EXERCISE 231. 

Point out the verbs the meaning of which is completed by some 
expression that is descriptive of the subject. 

1. The case seems more hopeful. 2. Man became a living soul. 
3. The man has turned fool. 4. He looks well and feels much 
stronger. 5. Why stand ye here idle ? 6. All bloodless lay the un- 
trodden snow. 7. He had been called wise. 8. The English forces 
proved irresistible. 9. The shutters blew open. 10. The buds smell 
sweet, but they taste bitter. 11. Some men are born great. 12. Some 
are thought wise or rich. 13. The train came thundering along as we 
lay stretched upon the grass. 14. We are in great danger, and, if I 
were leader, our advance should be slow. 15. He lived a miser, kept 
adding to his store, and died unhappy. 

375. Sometimes the complement seems to have as much to do 
with the verb as with the subject. Thus, the predicate adjectives 
in the first column convey about the same meaning as the adverbs in 
the second column : — 



She sits still. 
It shines bright. 
He came running. 



She sits quietly. 
It shines brightly. 
He came swiftly. 



But sometimes the adjectives and the adverbs have different mean- 
ings. [§ 513.] 

EXERCISE 232. 

Explain the use of the adjectives and of the adverbs, and tell the 
difference in meaning between — 

" That looks good " and " That looks well." 

" He looked careful " and ".He looked carefully." 

" He feels strong " and " He feels strongly." 

" She appeared hasty " and " She appeared hastily." 

" She looks kind to me " and " She looked kindly at me." 

376. Transitive Verbs. Verbs that are usually transi- 
tive may also be used intransitively ; i.e., they may . signify 
merely that something is clone, nothing being said about 
what is affected by the action. So we say, — 



186 VEEBS 

" He stayed his wrath " or " He seldom stayed." 
" He speaks English " or " He speaks slowly." 

377. Even verbs that are usually intransitive may 
sometimes take an object. Thus : — 

Sit thee down. She worked herself to death. They live a dreary 
life, and are running a hopeless race. Walk your horses up hill. 

378. Objective Complement. . Many transitive verbs take a 
complement descriptive of the object. [See § 235.] 

EXERCISE 233. 

1. Make short sentences showing how each verb may be used either 
transitively or intransitively : — 

Answer ; boils ; dissolve ; returned ; smells ; survive ; break ; fell ; 
slipped ; believes ; becomes; shakes; rained; pulls; struck; drives; 
gnaw ; sing ; worries ; felt ; sounds ; followed ; rattled ; tasted ; fear ; 
stay. 

2. Find ten other verbs that may be used in both ways. 



B. INFLECTION: CHANGES IN FORM. 

379. As with nouns and pronouns, so with verbs, each 
has several forms made by inflection to correspond to 
changes in the use or in the meaning. 

The phrases that are used instead of inflected forms we 
shall study later. [ See page 205.] 

1 . Tense-forms 
EXERCISE 234. 

1. Tell whether the time referred to is present or past. If in 
doubt, add "now" or "yesterday." 





TENSE-FORMS. 


18 


He thinks. 


She rides. 


It stood. 


They fall. 


I thought. 


They caught. 


We found 


Waves dash. 


lie catches. 


I walked. 


I lose. 


Water freezes. 


We study. 


You wrote. 


It grows. 


Ice breaks. 


You went. 


We sent. 


She saw. 


Time flies. 



2. Change each verb so that it will refer to some other time. 

380. Nearly every verb lias one change of form that 
affects the meaning as much as if it were modified by an 
adverb. Thus, speaking of the present time, we say, — 

I come; I wait; I stay; 

but if it was at some time in the past that the coming, 
waiting, or staying took place, we say, — 

I came; I waited; I stayed. 

381. Forms that are changed to express a difference 
in time are called Tenses, which means times. 



EXERCISE 235. 

Tell whether the form of the verb denotes present or past time 



I have. 


Thou mayest. 


He was. 


Thou canst. 


He shall. 


He does. 


You may. 


I will. 


You can. 


Thou art. 


I did. 


He might. 


He would. 


They could. 


He hath. 


You are. 


I am. 


They had. 


Thou hast. 


You should 


We were. 


Thou wast. 


She has. 


It is. 


Thou dost. 



382. The Present tense of a verb is the form that generally 
refers to present time. As,— 

I stand; I work; I live. 

383. The present tense is sometimes used of what is 
past or future to make it seem present or distinct; as, — 

In the fifteenth century a new era begins. 
We leave the city to-morrow. 



188 • VEEBS. 

384. In form the present tense is like the simple infini- 
tive, or root, from which all other forms are derived. 

(a) The verb be is an exception, since its present am is formed from another root. 

385. The Past tense of a verb is the form that generally refers 
to past time. As, — 

I stood; I worked; I lived. 

386. The past tense is sometimes used of what is really 
present or future to make it seem doubtful ; as, — 

If I were well to-day — If I should go to-morrow — 

EXERCISE 236. 

Write the present tense of — 

Patted; played; began; could; caught; worked; stood; walked; 
chose ; came ; waited ; bit ; tried ; crept ; struck ; blew ; broke ; flew ; 
gazed; brought; burnt; whipped; did; bled; dug. 

387. The common or regular way of changing the 
present to the past form is by adding d or ed at the 
end. Thus : — 

I lived; I borrowed; I waited. 

But in a number of the oldest verbs the change appears 
in the middle of the word, whether anything is added or 
not. Thus : — 

stand, stood ; fall, fell ; see, saw. 

(a) The verbs be and go are exceptions, for the past tenses was and went are 
formed from different roots. [See § 416.] 

EXERCISE 237. 
Write the past tense of as many of these as you can : — 
Work ; write ; make ; wear ; think ; till ; love ; take ; strike ; see ; 

pour; steal; speak; sit; sell; run; ride; guess; smoke; give; part; 

drive ; dream ; ask ; try. 



MOOD. 189 

388. About twenty verbs cannot be changed in this way, and the 
time is therefore shown by something besides the form ; as, — 

Now we spread our tents. We spread them yesterday. 
In such cases we may call the form present or past according to its 
use. 

389. Tenses are the forms of a verb that distinguish time. 

2. Mood. 

390. If we study verbs in sentences, we find them used 
to predicate in several ways or modes. Thus, they may 
be used — 

1. To command, as in " Be ready " ; " Wish with me." 

2. («) To assert positively, as in " I am ready " ; " She wishes 

it." 
(b) To question, as in " Am I ready ? " " Who wishes this ? " 

3. To say something doubtfully, as if only thought of ; as in — 
" If it be there, I will bring it " ; " If I were ready, I would go." 

391. It was once the custom to use in such cases quite 
different forms of the verb called — not tenses to show 
times — but Moods to show the manner or mood in which 
a person spoke. Even nowadays the forms are not always 
the same, and hence we say that — 

392. I. A verb used to express a command or a request 
is in the Imperative mood. As, — 

Go quickly. Come with me. Be honest. 

393. II. A verb used either (1) to state something as 
a fact, or (2) to ask a simple question, is in the Indicative 

mood. As, — 

He goes quickly. She wishes it. 
If she was there, I failed to see her. 

Most sentences are, as we know, of this kind. 



190 VERBS. 

394. III. A verb used to express in a doubtful way 

either (1) what is uncertain and to be decided in the future, 
or (2) a supposition that is contrary to fact, or (3) a wish, 
is in the Subjunctive mood. As, — 

(1) Though he be dead, we shall find him. Even if he fail, he 
will not despair. (2) If she were willing, I would help her. (3) I 
wish I were well. Thy kingdom come. 

Sentences of this kind are comparatively rare. 

395. We know that the order of words may distinguish 
an assertion from a question ; as in — 

" Does he ride ? " " He does ride " ; 
and also that the dropping of the subject may distinguish 
an assertion from a command ; as in — 

" You ride every day " ; " Ride every day." 
Now commonly there is nothing about the form of a 
verb to show in which manner it is used ; but still there 
are a few special forms in the indicative mood, so that 
even now the form does sometimes vary with different 
modes of speaking. Thus : — 



Indicative Forms. 

1. Thy foe appears ; advance. 

2. Thine enemy thirsts ; give him 

drink. 

3. He telleth all our plans. 

4. He said he was to stay. 

5. I know what the result is. 

Indicative Form. 
1. Thou keepest my feet from 
falling. 



Subjunctive Forms. 

1. If thy foe appear, advance. 

2. If thine enemy thirsts, give him 

drink. 

3. See that he tell no man. 

4. He said that if he were to 

stay 

5. Whatever be the result 

Imperative Form. 
1. Keep thou my feet from fall- 
ing. 



396. When used with the same subject, such forms as 
appears, thirsts, telleth, was, is, am, art, are, belong only 



NUMBER AND PEE SON. 191 

to the Indicative mood ; such forms as appear, thirst, tell, 
were, be, belong only to the Subjunctive mood. Forms 
like keep instead of keepest belong to the Imperative 
mood. [For Potential phrases, see § 432.] 

397. Mood is the power of a verb to denote the manner of 
speaking. 

EXERCISE 238. 

Select from the following sentences five verbs that express a com- 
mand; three that express a wish or a supposition contrary to the 
fact ; three that state something as uncertain and to be decided in 
the future ; three that assert a condition assumed to be a fact ; five 
that state facts positively : — 

1. Clouds bring rain. 2. Dare to do right. 3. I wish my father 
were here. 4. The eclipse was total. 5. A robin built its nest in our 
elm. 6. If I am not paid, I work hard. 7. Speak kindly to the erring. 
8. He would be a spendthrift if he were rich. 9. If he was severe, he 
was not unjust. 10. The crew furled the sails. 11. Be just, and fear 
not. 12. Improve your opportunity before it be lost. 13. I should 
go even if the danger were greater. 14. If the truth be known, no 
harm can result. 15. Though she was there, I did not see her. 16. If 
it be fair, we shall go. 

3. Number and Person. 

398. The differences in the special indicative forms of 
a verb depend on what its subject is. Thus, in the present 
tense we say, — 

I, we, you, they, or the men stay ; but 
He, she, it, or the man stays, — 

using a special form made by adding s or es whenever the 
subject is a third-singular pronoun or a singular noun. 

399. As this special form is never used except with a 
subject denoting the third person and the singidar number, 



192 VEEBS. 

it is called the third-singular form. It is also called the 
s-form, because it always ends in s. 

EXERCISE 239. 

Use every one of these words in succession to fill each blank, and 
spell the third-singular form of the verb : — 

1, you, he, we, you, she, they, toe, it, the men, the man. 



— go, 


— find, 


— perch, 


— deny, 


— smash, 


— wish, 


— piy> 


— crouch, 


— watch, 


— cry, 


— have, 


— do, 


— row, 


— lie, 


— lay. 



400. Changes to suit the person and number of the subject were 
once much more common than now, and two old-style forms such as 
we see in the Bible, are still used, especially in prayer and in poetry. 
Thus: — 

(a) With thou as subject the verb takes the ending st or est in 
both the present and past indicative tenses. For example : — 

Thou waitest. Thou waitedst. Thou goest. Thou stoodst ; 
and (&) instead of the customary third-singular form in s, a form 
ending in th or eth may be used in the present tense. Thus : — 
She giveth. He goeth. The wind bloweth. 

Exceptions. The verb be keeps many of its old changes of form, as shown in §416. 

Dare (meaning venture), and sometimes need, takes no added s with a third-singu- 
lar subject. Thus : — 

He dare not go. He dares you to do it. 

He need not stay. He needs a coat. 

401. The meaning of the verb is hardly affected by such changes, for they only 
show to which one or to how many the statement applies; but as they are made accord- 
ing to the meaning of the subject, that is sometimes said " to govern" the verb, and the 
verb is said " to agree with its subject." 



4. Verbal Nouns and Verbal Adjectives. 

402. By inflecting a verb in these different ways, we change the 
form, the application, and sometimes the use of it; but so long as it 
can predicate in any way, it still remains a verb. 



VERBAL NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 



193 



We now come to certain other verbal forms that do 
not predicate anything, and therefore are not verbs like 
the rest. 

EXERCISE 240, 

1. Which words and phrases are used as nouns to form a subject, 
a subjective complement, or an object? 

1. It needs painting. 5. He enjoys walking briskly. 

2. It needs to be painted. 6. I like to walk. 

3. She ceased weeping aloud. 7. To go at once is best. 

4. She ceased to mourn. 8. To live is to breathe. 



2. Which words are used as qualifying adjectives? 



6. It is shut. 

7. A promise given. 

8. Decayed trees. 

9. The twig was bent. 

10. Are they living or dead ? 



Standing corn. 
A lost cause. 
A broken reed. 
A flowing robe. 
Leave the door locked. 

11. The sea is rippled and sparkling. 

12. A man disheartened by misfortune. 

13. Your horse is caught, harnessed, and waiting for you. 

3. Consider each word that you have selected in each exercise, and, 
if it contains the idea of a verb, give one of the present tense-forms. 



EXERCISE 241. 

1. Which of these verbal words and expressions cannot form the 
predicate of a sentence ? 



grow 
running 

come 



took 



broken 

flew 

playing 

2. Which may be nouns, and which adjectives? 



goes 
worked 



flying 


give 


fallen 


grown 


to take 


to wait 



403. From almost every verb are formed two sjDecial 
kinds of verbal words having the use of other parts of 



194 VERBS. 

Thus, besides, the true verbs drives, drove, we have two nouns, 
driving and (to) drive, that name the action expressed by the 
verb ; as in — 

Driving is pleasant ; I like to drive ; 
and two adjectives, driving and driven, that describe either the 
actor or the receiver of the action ; as in — 

A man driving; Snow driven by the wind. 

404. Sucli nouns and adjectives as these differ from all 
others that are derived from verbs, since they may be 
formed from almost any verb; and, what is still more 
important to notice, they may have the same modifiers 
that verbs have. Thus : — 

(1) The nouns, if derived from transitive verbs, may take an 
object. As in — 

Driving fast horses is pleasant; 

and they always may be modified by an adverb. As in — 

I like to drive slowly. 
Here driving and to drive are used as subject and object, respec- 
tively ; but, like verbs, they express action as passing over to some- 
thing else, or as going on in different ways. 

(2) So with adjectives, we may say, — 

" a man beating a clog," or " a dog cruelly beaten." 
Here beating and beaten describe the man and the dog like adjec- 
tives, and are modified like verbs. There is no assertion in either 
expression, yet we think of the man as acting and of the dog as acted 
upon, as much as if a verb were used. 

EXERCISE 242. 
Find all the verbal nouns and verbal adjectives. 



1. Horses drawing stone. 

2. Stone drawn by horses. 

3. To draw well requires skill. 

4. A good teacher of drawing. 

5. Ducks swimming in the lake. 



6. Ducks shot by a hunter. 

7. To work is to win. 

8. Telling lies hardens the heart. 

9. The house standing back from 

the road. 



INFINITIVES. 195 

10. Fields ploughed in the early fall. 

11. An empty boat carried over the falls. 

12. A long-boat carrying several ship-wrecked passengers. 

13. The habit of smoking tobacco or of playing with fire. 

14. To waste in youth is to want in age. 

405. The two nouns regularly formed from verbs are 
called Infinitives. 

406. 1. The first infinitive is the root or simplest 
form of the verb, either with or without the sign to 
before it (§ 558); as, — 

(to) drive, (to) spin, (to) sleep, (to) walk. 
This is called the root-infinitive, or simply the infinitive. 
2. The second infinitive is formed with the ending ing ; 

as, — 

driving, spinning, sleeping, walking. 

This is called the infinitive in ing. 1 It is often treated 
in all respects like a noun (§ 184), having similar uses and 
modifiers. Thus : — 

(Rapid) driving (in crowded streets) is dangerous. 

EXERCISE 243. 

1. Select the infinitives, and, if possible, tell how they are used. 
1. These are wagons for carrying corn. 2. Writing letters is mak- 
ing signs. 3. Have you ever tried writing with your left hand ? 

1 Or sometimes the " gerund." To the Teacher. — (1) The root-infinitive, with or 
without "to," is a noun, and is sprung from an old infinitive that in its inflected form 
was governed by the preposition " to." 

The infinitive in "ing," judged by its use, is even more apparently a noun, and ia 
sprung from a verbal noun that had no verbal uses and certainly no adjective uses. 

Both infinitives are abstract nouns; e.g., living = existence. 

(2) The participles are always adjectives in sense, and both are sprung from parti- 
ciples; but both may be used as concrete nouns like many other adjectives; e.g., the 
living = those who hare life. 

(3) Tbe names infinitive and participle, like the names of all the parts of speech, are 
applied according to uses, not according to forms. 



196 VEEBS. 

4. We ran to the rescue. 5. We ran to rescue them. 6. To write 
letters easily is an accomplishment. 7. He came to stay here for his 
health. 8. He has tried to walk without his crutches. 9. His physi- 
cian forbade him to run after eating. 10. I desire to go. I wish to 
go. I will go. 

2. Form the infinitives of any ten verbs. 

3. Give the simplest form of the verbs from which the following 
words are derived. Tell which may be infinitives ; i.e., which can take 
an object, or be modified by an adverb ; and illustrate by using them 
in sentences. 

to give, giving, giver, gift ; 



laughter, laughing, to laugh ; 
sailor, sailing; 



visit, visitor, visiting. 



407. An Infinitive is a verbal noun that names the action 
or condition expressed by the verb, and takes the same comple- 
ments and modifiers. 

Note. The word "infinitive" means infinite, unlimited. It is applied to these 
forms because the idea of the verb is never limited as to person and number. 

408. The two adjectives regularly formed from verbs 
are called Participles. 

409. One participle describes a person or thing as con- 
tinuing an action. It is called the active or imperfect 
participle, and always ends in ing-; as, — 

driving, spinning, sleeping, walking. 

410. The other participle is called the passive or per- 
fect participle, because what it describes is regarded 
either (a) as having received the action expressed by the 

verb; as in — 

Threads are spun, Cattle are driven ; 

or else (5) as having completed some action; as in — 

One who has walked or slept. 

This participle usually ends in t, d, or n. 

JS"ote. The names present and past are also used : but see page 267, note, 



CONJUGATION. 197 



EXERCISE 244. 

Select the participles. Tell from what verb each is derived, what 
each describes, and what its modifiers are. 

A fisherman leaving the shore pulled out to the sunken reef in a 
boat kept for his use. Hearing a ship pounding on the rocks, he 
rowed till he could see the crew bound or clinging half-frozeii to the 
shattered masts. They were partly hidden by the fog, and partly by 
patches of torn sails. 

411. A Participle is a verbal adjective. It shares or par- 
ticipates in the nature of a verb and of an adjective. 

412. These verbal nouns and adjectives are given along with 
other verb-forms, because — 

(1) They are made from almost every verb ; 

(2) Most verb-phrases are formed by help of them ; and — 

(3) They take the same kind of complements and modifiers that 
verbs take. 

CONJUGATION. 

» 

413. When we put together all the different forms of 

a verb, we have what is called the Conjugation of it. 

414. We shall find that there are commonly but seven 
or eight changes made in the verb by inflection. In 
the verbs wait and give, for instance, we use the sim- 
ple forms — 

(1) Wait and give, as infinitive, as imperative, as present tense 
of the indicative and subjunctive ; 

We substitute — 

(2) Waits and gives in the present indicative with third-singular 
subjects ; 

(3) Waited and gave as past tense ; 

(4) Waiting and giving as the second infinitive and as the imper- 
fect or active participle ; 



198 VERBS. 

(5) Waited (like the past tense) and given as the perfect or pas- 
sive participle. 

Besides these we have the solemn or poetical forms, — 

(6) Waitest and givest, in the present indicative, with the sub- 
ject thou; 

(7) Waitedst and gavest, in the past indicative, with the subject 
thou; and — 

(8) Waiteth and giveth, in the present indicative, with a third- 
singular subject. 

415. Rules for Spelling. I. The third-singular form of the 
present indicative is made by adding s to the root-form, or es, when needed 
for the sound. If the verb ends in y after a consonant, y is changed to i, 
and es is added. [See §§ 192, 193.] As, — 

Make, makes ; go, goes ; wish, wishes ; defy, defies. 

Exception. Have becomes has (not haves) . 

II. Silent e is dropped before the suffixes ed, ing, etc. As, — 

Hope, hoped, hoping, hopest, hopeth. 

Exceptions. Hoe, shoe, toe, dye, singe, and tinge retain the e before ing. Die 
becomes dying ; have becomes had (not haved). 

III. Monosyllables, and dissyllables accented on the second syllable, if 
they end in a single consonant after a single vowel, double the final conso- 
nant before er, ed, ing, etc. As, — 

Sad, sadder, saddest; hop, hopped, hopping; refer, referred. 

IV. To verbs ending in ic, k is added before all endings but s. As, — 

Traffic, trafficked, trafficking. 

EXERCISE 245. 
Write in columns the five common forms of these verbs. Thus : — 

Boot. S-form. Past Tense. Imperf. Part. Per/. Part. 

try, tries, tried, trying, tried. 

rob, robs, robbed, robbing, robbed. 
[See page 202 for forms that you do not know.] 

Omit ; do ; carpet ; dry ; defer ; wrap ; befit ; submit ; behave ; 
echo ; differ ; bar ; benefit ; live ; merit ; ship ; glorify ; have ; equip ; 
regret ; save ; slap ; concur ; gaze ; search ; quit ; compel ; gossip ; 
sing; singe. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE. 



199 



Conjugation of the Irregular Verb BE. 

416. The Verb be not only keeps many of the old forms, 
but is really made up of three different verbs, — the infini- 
tives and participles be, being, been, from one root; the 
present tense am, are, etc., from another; and the past 
was, were, from a third. Thus : — 

f am, with 1 as subject. 
art, with thou as subject. 



Indicative . 



Past 



Subjunctive 



Infinitives . 



Pvesent -l 

I is, with any third-singular subject. 

[ are, with you, or any plural subject. 

f -was, with any singular subject ; — not 
with " thou " nor " you." 
wast or wert, with thou as subject. 
were, with you, or any plural subject. 

Present, .be. Imperative be. 

Past . . .were. 

Imperfect Participle being. 

Perfect Participle been. 



( (to) be. 
\ being. 



EXERCISE 246. 

1. Fill the blanks with the proper present indicative forms of be 
I _ W eU. We — well. She — well. 
Thou — well. You — well. One — well. 

He — well. They — well. Some — well. 

2. Fill the blanks with the proper past indicative forms of be. 



I — absent. 
You — absent. 
He — absent. 
She — absent. 



We — absent. 
They — absent. 
Roy — present. 
Boys — present. 



The king — present. 
The princes — present. 
Many — present. 
Thou — present. 



41 7. Most verbs have seven inflected forms, only four 
of which are in common use. These verbs are conjugated 
like wait, as follows : — 



200 



VEEBS. 



Conjugation of WAIT. 



Present i 



f wait, 
waits (or waiteth), with a third-singular 



Indicative . < 

Subjunctive •] 
Infinitives . < 



subject only. 
(waitest, with thou as subject.) 



Past. . 



( waited. 



\ (waitedst, with thou as subject). 

Present, .wait. Imperative -wait. 

Past . . .waited. 
(to) wait, 
•waiting. 



Imperfect Participle waiting. 
Perfect Participle waited. 



418. Some verbs have eight or nine inflected forms, 
three of which are seldom used. These verbs are conju- 
gated like give. 

Conjugation of GIVE. 



Present 



Past. . 



give. 

gives (or giveth), with a third-singular 

subject only, 
(givest, with thou as subject.) 

gave. 

(gavest, with thou as subject.) 



Indicative . 

Subjunctive 
Infinitives . 



419. Regular and Irregular Verbs. We see that the 
two verbs wait and give are changed in different ways. 
The past tense and the perfect participle of wait are 
formed alike, that is by adding ed. Thus : — 
wait, waited, waited. 



( Present . . 
{Past . . . 


give, 
gave. 


Imperative give. 




( (to) give. 
\ giving. 




Active Participle 
Passive Participle 


giving, 
given. 



REGULAR AND IRREGULAR. 201 

But in give these two parts are unlike, being formed 
without the use of ed. Thus : — 
give, gave, given. 

Elsewhere the changes are the same, and in order to 
conjugate any verb we commonly need to know only how 
these two forms are made. 

420. Most verbs 1 form the past tense and the perfect 
participle by adding d or ed to the root, and are called 
Regular Verbs. All other verbs are called Irregular. 2 
For example : — 



Root- 
Inf. 


Past 

Tense. 


Perp. 
Part. 




Root- 
Inf. 


Past 

Tense. 


Perf. 
, Part. 


wait, 
live, 


waited, 
lived, 


waited, 
lived. 


Irregular ■ 


( give, 
I fall, 


gave, 
fell, 


given, 
fallen. 



421. These three forms, the root-infinitive, the past 
tense, and the perfect participle, are called the Princi- 
pal Parts of the verb, because when they are known, the 
whole conjugation of the verb can be given. 

422. Double Forms. Some verbs have both regular and 
irregular forms for the past tense, or for the perfect parti- 
ciple, or for both. Sometimes these forms differ in meaning, 
and frequently in use, but generally either may be used. 

1 All but about two hundred of the thousands of verbs in the language. 

2 To the Teacher. — Though for convenience we may distinguish verbs as "regular" 
and "irregular," it is proper and useful to bear in mind the genuine classification of 
them into — (I.) Verbs of the New Conjugation (comprising all that are " regular " and 
some that are " irregular ") in which the past tense and the perfect participle ordinarily 
add ed, d, or t, but have in some cases been changed for ease of utterance; and — 
(II.) Verbs of the Old Conjugation (all called "irregular"), which after a change of 
vowel sound for the past tense, and after the addition of en or n for the participle, 
have often undergone euphonic changes. 

The first class includes all new verbs, and some others. Verbs of the second class, 
designated by heavy type in the list (p. 202), all belong to the oldest stage of the lan- 
guage. 



202 



VERBS. 



List of Irregular Verbs. 

423. [Forms now out of use or rare are as a rule omitted. Otherwise the list 
contains all verb-forms of the old conjugation printed in bold-faced type, and all irregu- 
lar forms of the new conjugation printed in plain type. "Where only part of the forms 
are irregular, the regular forms are given too.] 



Present. 


Past. 


Perf. Part. 


Present. 


Past. 


Perf. Part. 


Abide 


abode 


abode 


Cleave ! 


( clove, 
( cleft 


( cloven 
\ cleft 


Awake 


( awoke 
{ awaked 




[split] 




awaked 


Cling 


clung 


clung 








Clothe 


j clothed 


( clothed 
\ clad 
come 


Be (pres. 
am) 


| was 


been 


Come 


\ clad 
came 






\ borne 


Cost 


cost 


cost 


Bear 


i bore 
.{ bare 


1 icwrried-] 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


1 born 


Crow 


( crew 
| crowed 


\ crowed 






y [.brought forth'] 




Beat 


beat 


beaten 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


Begin 


began 


begun 








Bend 


bent 


bent 




( dared 
/ durst [>w 


dared 


Bereave 


f bereft 


f bereft 


Dare 


ured] 


| bereaved 


\ bereaved 


Deal 


dealt 


dealt 


Beseech 


besought 


besought 


Dig 


(dug 

digged 


(dug 
\ digged 


Bet 


( betted 
) bet 


( betted 




\ bet 


Do 


did 


done 


Bid 


( bade 
jbid 


i bidden 
jbid 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Dream 


\ dreamed 


\ dreamed 


Bind 


bound 


bound 


( dreamt 


{ dreamt 


Bite 


bit 


( bitten 
jbit 


Drink 


drank 


drunk 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Dwell 


( dwelt 
( dwelled 


( dwelt 


Blend 


( blended 
| blent 


)' blended 
\ blent 


\ dwelled 


Bless 


blessed 


( blessed 
\ blest 


Eat 


ate 


eaten 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Fall 


fell 


fallen 


Break 


broke 


broken 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Breed 


bred 


bred 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Bring 


brought 


brought 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Build 


j built 


f built 


Find 


found 


found 


I builded 


\ builded 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Burn 


( burned 
| burnt 


( burned 
J burnt 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Fly 


flew 


flown 


Burst 
Buy 


burst 
bought 


burst 
bought 


Forget 


forgot 


( forgotten 
\ forgot 








Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Can 


could 





Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Cast 


cast 


cast 








Catch 


caught 


caught 


Get 
Gild 


got 

gilded 


(got 
1 gotten 
( gilded 
\ gilt 


Chide 
Choose 


chid 
chose 


f chidden 
| chid 
chosen 



Cleave, meaning adhere, is regular. 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



203 



Present. 
Gird 

Give 

Go 

Grave 

Grind 
Grow 

Hangi 
Have 
Hear 
Heave 

Hew 

Hide 

Hit 

Hold 

Hurt 

Keep 
Kneel 

Knit 
Know 

Lade 

Lay 
Lead 

Leap 

Learr 

Leave 

Lend 

Let 

Lie 

Lose 

Make 
May- 
Mean 

Meet 
Mow 

Must 

Orient 



Pass 



Past. 

{girded 
girt 

gave 
[went] 

{ graved 
ground 

grew 

hung 

had 

heard 
[hove 
1 heaved 
[ hewed 

hid 

hit 

held 

hurt 

kept 
[ knelt 
| kneeled 
| knit 
{ knitted 

knew 

laded 

laid 

led 

leaped 

leapt 

learned 

learnt 

left 

lent 

let 

lay 

lost 

made 

might 

meant 

met 

mowed 



passed 






Perf. Part. 

girded 

girt 

given 

gone 

graven 

graved 

ground 

grown 



hung 

had 

heard 
[ hoven 
j heaved 
[ hewed 
1 hewn 
J hidden 
Jhid 

hit 

held 

hurt 

kept 
f knelt 
1 kneeled 
(knit 
{ knitted 

known 

{ laded 
( laden 

laid 

led 

leaped 

leapt 

learned 
{ learnt 

left 

lent 

let 

lain 

lost 

made 

meant 
met 
mowed 
mown 



[ passed 
{past 



Present. Past. 

Pay paid 

Pen i P euned 

reu j pent 

Put put 



[ quit 
{ quitted 
quoth 

read 

rent 

rid 
rode 
rang 
rose 

[ rived 
ran 

sawed 

said 

saw 

sought 

sold 

sent 

set 

shook 

should 

shaped 

shaved 

sheared 

shed 
[ shone 
{ shined 

shod 

shot 

showed 
shred 
shrank 
shrunk 

shrived 

shut 
[sang 
{ sung 

sank 

sat 

slew 



Quit 

Read 

Rend 

Rid 
Ride 
Ring 
Rise 

Rive 

Run 
Saw 

Say 

See 

Seek 

Sell 

Send 

Set 

Shake 

Shall 

Shape 

Shave 

Shear 

Shed 
Shine 

Shoe 

Shoot 

Show 

Shred 

Shrink 

Shrive 

Shut 

Sing 

Sink 

Sit 

Slay 



Perf. Part. 

paid 
[ penned 
{ pent_ 

put 

[ quit 
I quitted 



read 
[rent 
{ rended 

rid 

ridden 

rung 

risen 
[ riven 
{ rived 

run 

[ sawed 
{ sawn 

said 

seen 

sought 

sold 

sent 

set 

shaken 

shaped 

shapen 

shaved 

shaven 

sheared 

shorn 

shed 
[ shone 
{ shined 

shod 

shot 
[ shown 
{ showed 

shred 
[ shrunk 
| shrunken 

shriven 

shut 

sung 

sunk 

sat 

slain 



Hang, meaning cause death, is regular. 



204 



VEEBS. 



Present. 


Past. 


Perf. Part. 


Present. 


Past. 


Perf. Part 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 


String 


strung 


strung 


Slide 


slid 


f slidden 
(slid 


Strive 
Strow 


strove 

( strowed 


striven 
f strown 


Sling- 


slung 


slung 




"( 


Slink 


slunk 


slunk 


Swear 


swore 


sworn 


Slit 


slit 


slit 


Sweat 


f sweat 
( sweated 


f sweat 
( sweated 


Smell 


f smelled 
{ smelt 


| smelled 
( smelt 


Sweep 


swept 


swept 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 


Swell 


( swelled 


f swollen 
( swelled 


Sow 


sowed 


f sowed 
( sown 








Swirn 


swam 


swum 


Speak 


f spoke 

( spake 

sped 


1 spoken 
sped 


Swing 


swung 


swung 


Speed 


Take 


took 


taken 


Spell 


f spelled 
{ spelt 


f spelled 
( spelt 


Teach 


taught 


taught 


Tear 


tore 


torn 


Spend 


spent 


spent 


Tell 


told 


told 


Spill 


f spilled 
1 spilt 


| spilled 
( spilt 


Think 


- thought 


thought 


Thrive 


| throve 
( thrived 


( thriven 
( thrived 


Spin 


spun 


spun 




Spit 


f spit 
1 spat 


I spit 


Throw 


threw 


thrown 


Thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


Split 
Spoil 


split 
f spoiled 
( spoilt 


split 
f spoiled 
( spoilt 


Tread 


trod 


f trodden 
(trod 


Spread 


spread 


spread 


Wake 


f waked 
( woke 


waked 


Spring- 


sprang 


sprung 






Stand 


stood 


stood 


Wear 


wore 


worn 


Stave 


f staved 
( stove 


f staved 
( stove 


Weave 


wove 


woven 




Weep 


wept 


wept 


Steal 


stole 


stolen 


Wet 


wet 


wet 


Stick 


stuck 


stuck 


Willi 


would 





Sting 


stung 


stung 


Win 


won 


won 


Stink 


f stank 
1 stunk 


1 stunk 


Wind 

Wit 


wound 

wist 


wound 


Strew 


j 


| strewn 


Work 


f worked 
( wrought 


f worked 
{ wrought 




{ strewed 


Stride 


strode 


stridden 


Wring 


wrung 


wrung 


Strike 


struck 


j struck 
( stricken 


Write 


wrote 


written 



EXERCISE 247. 

1. I it now. 2. I it yesterday. 3. I have it to-day. 

Fill the blanks with the principal parts of the following verbs : — 
Bear; beat; begin; bite; blow; break; bring; buy; catch; choose 
do ; draw ; drink ; drive ; eat ; find ; forget ; forsake ; freeze ; give 
have ; hide ; know ; lay ; leave ; make ; mean ; rend ; ride ; ring ; see 
seek ; set ; shake ; show ; slay ; smite ; sow ; speak ; spin ; spring- 
strike ; take ; throw ; weave ; wear ; wring ; write. 
1 Will, meaning bequeath, is regular. 



VEKB-PHRASES* 205 

EXERCISE 248. 

1. They may . 2. They yesterday. 3. They had already . . 

Use the principal parts of the following verbs to fill the blanks : — 

Become; bid; come; crow; fall; flee; fly; grow; lie; rise; raise; 
shine ; shrink ; sing ; sit ; slide > stand ; steal ; stride ; strive ; swear ; 
swim ; think ; tread. 



D. VERB-PHRASES. 

SUBSTITUTES FOR INFLECTED FORMS. 

424. English verbs have no changes in form other than 
those already mentioned. In some languages, the number 
of forms is much greater ; but in English, all other varia- 
tions in time, and so on, must be expressed in a round- 
about way by what are called Verb-phrases. 

425. Yerb-plirases are made by using some root- 
infinitive or participle as the complement of another 
verb. As, — 

He | will go. They | have waited. She | may write. 
It | is coming. It | w T as built. 

426. The verbs that are used with infinitives and par- 
ticiples merely to make verb-phrases, are called Auxiliary 
(i.e., helping) verbs. 

427. The Principal Parts of the Auxiliary verbs are, — 



RESENT. 


Past. 


Perfect 
Participle. 


Present. 


Past. 


Perfect 
Participle 


shall 


should 





must 


_ 





will 


would 





do 


did 


done 


may 


might 





be 


was 


been 


can 


could 





have 


had 


had 



206 VERBS. 

(a) The indicative forms used in the solemn or poetic style, with 
thou as subject, are, — 

Present. Past. 

shalt shouldst 

wilt wouldst 
mayest > 



mayst 



I 



mightest 



Present. 


Past. 


canst 


couldst 


dost, doest 


didst 


art 


wast, wert 


hast 


hadst 



1. Future Tense. 
Phrases made with SHALL and WILL. 

428. When we wish to predict that anything is to 
happen in time to come, we say, — 

I shall take ; He will take ; 1 
using the present tense of " shall " and of " will " to help 
us in expressing the idea of taking as future. 

If we take the phrases apart, the real meaning will be, — 
I am obliged to take ; He intends taking, or resolves to take ; 
for I shall really means I owe, and I will means I resolve. 

429. Future Tense-%tTirases are formed with shall or will 
and a root-infinitive, and denote future time. 

430. The parts of any verb-phrase may be separated by other 
words ; as in — 

He will not go. We shall, in all probability, fail. 

"Will she not sing ? Shall you and your friends remain ? 

431. By carefully choosing between the different uses 
of shall and will (§ 468), we can make future phrases 
that will promise, instead of predict. 

1 Do not think that " take " is the real verb here: " shall " or " will " is the verb, and 
the infinitive "take" is the object of it. The phrase that they together make is called 
the future tense of the indicative ; for the auxiliaries have lost much of their original 
meaning, and are now little more than signs of the future tense. 



POTENTIAL FORMS. 207 

EXERCISE 249. 

Make sentences, using the future tense of each of these forms : — 
Went ; caught ; drove ; blown ; hid ; trod ; rejoiced ; sang ; sprung ; 
said ; lied ; lain ; came ; flew ; flow. 

2. Potential Forms. 
May, can, and must used as Auxiliaries. 

432. May, can, and must are used with root-infinitives 
to make what are called Potential phrases, that express 
what is possible, conditional, or obligatory. 

May implies permission, can implies ability or power, 
must implies obligation or necessity ; hut, as they often 
lose their proper meaning and become mere auxiliaries, 
they are given as parts of the conjugation of the verb 
that they help. 

433. The present forms may, can, and must generally 
give a present meaning. Thus : — 

You may go ; i.e., you have permission to go. 

We can give ; i.e., we are able to give. 

The engine can draw the train ; i.e., it has the power to draw it. 

I must go ; i.e., I am obliged to go. 

It must be sold ; i.e., the sale of it is necessary. 

434. May and can sometimes have a future or subjunctive mean- 
ing ; as in — 

You may slip = perhaps you will slip. 

I shall come if I can ; i.e., if it be possible. 

435. The past forms might and could may give a past 
meaning to the phrase ; as in — 

He could not wait = he was not able to wait ; 



208 VEKBS. 

Or they may give a subjunctive meaning as of something 
merely thought of. Thus : — 

If he were here, he could not wait. 

He might be useful, though hard to manage. 

436. Should, the past tense of " shall," is sometimes used with a 
present meaning to denote a duty or obligation ; as in — 

You should do as you are bidden. [See § 472.] 

437. Potential Phrases denote permission, power, obliga- 
tion, or necessity, and are formed by using the root-influitive with 
may, can, must, might, could, would, or should, 

EXERCISE 250. 

Using the infinitive of each of the following words, make sen- 
tences containing potential phrases, and tell whether they denote 
permission, poiver, obligation, etc. : — 

Speak; borne; broken; chid; drew; feel; sat; froze; slain; shod; 
smote; swung; swept; thrust; raised; rose. 

3. Perfect Tenses. 
Have as an Auxiliary. 

438. I. Present Perfect. Whenever we wish to speak 
of an action as completed at the present time, we say, — 

not " I buy it to-day," but " I have bought it to-day," 
using the present tense of the auxiliary have, and the 
perfect participle of some verb. So, too, — 
The town has grown this year. 
It has occurred twice this century. 

439. II. Past Perfect. In speaking of an action as com- 
pleted at some definite past time, we use the past form had 
with the perfect participle. Thus : — 

They had gone before I arrived. 



PKOGRESSIVE PHUASES. 209 

440. III. Future Perfect. If we wish to speak of an 
action as already finished or completed at some future 
time, we use the future tense, shall or will have, with 
the perfect participle, and say, — 

The sun will have risen before our arrival. 

441. Phrases that denote completed or perfected actions are 
called Perfect Tenses, and are formed by combining the perfect 
participle of any yerb with the various tenses of have, 

442. Thus almost any of the forms that we have studied may be 
made perfect. For example : — 

Simple Infinitive, (to) do; Perfect Infinitive, (to) have done. 

Potential: Present, I may go; Present Perfect, I may have gone. 

443. We see then that by inflection and by the use of 
auxiliaries we form six tenses ; namely, — 

Present, Past, Future, 

Present Perfect, Past Perfect, Future Perfect. 

EXERCISE 251. 

Tell whether the verb shows present, past, or future time, and give 
the corresponding perfect form of that tense; i.e., the perfect tense- 
phrase : — 

1. He sings well. 2. Pie wrote yesterday. 3. They will go to- 
morrow. 4. They could not wait. 5. They should obey their parents. 
6. She had an instructor. 7. We shall set out on his return. 8. Can 
it be true? 9. What could he answer? 10. Would he welcome you? 

4. Progressive Verb-phrases. 
Be as an Auxiliary. 

444. To express what is customary or habitual, we use 
the simpler forms of the verb ; as, — 



210 VERBS. 

She paints. He studied law. They will preach ; 

but to represent an action as continuing or actually in 
progress, we use still another form of phrase. Thus : — 
She is painting. He was studying law. They will be preaching. 

Here the verb be has for its complement not an 
ordinary adjective, but the imperfect or active participle 
of the verb, and the two together make what is called a 
Progressive phrase. 

445. To make a Progressive Verb-phrase we use the active 
participle of any verb as complement of the proper tense of be. 

All the preceding forms and tenses may be made progressive. 
Thus : — 

He may or should try; he may or should be trying. 
They have or had tried ; they have or had been trying. 

EXERCISE 252. 

Change these verbs to progressive verb-phrases : — 



1. She goes. 

2. They dye. 

3. Must you go? 



4. It rises. 

5. Shall you go? 



>. I will wait. J 9. Study 



7. You may walk. 

8. Can he have sat? 



5. Emphatic Verb -phrases. 

Do as an Auxiliary. 

446. Instead of the simple present or past " He tries," 
" I tried," " Try," we may say more emphatically, — 
He does try, I did try, Do try ; 

using the verb do, and the infinitive "try" as the object of 
it. Here do seems to have lost its ordinary meaning, 



EMPHATIC .PHEASES. 211 

perform, and serves only as an auxiliary to make an 
Emphatic form of the verb try. 

447 '. When we ask or deny, as. in interrogative or negative 

sentences, these phrases are almost always used instead of the simple 
forms. Thus, we usually say, — 

Does he try? Did I try? He does not try. I did not try. (Not 
« Tries he ? Tried I ? He tried not, etc.") 

EXERCISE 253. 

Change the following expressions to the emphatic, the negative, 
and the interrogative forms: — 

1. They learn. 2. We make hats. 3. They settled the country. 
4. The plan works well. 5. Their journey ended. 6. He had cour- 
age. 7. Time brings changes. 8. We drew the sword. 

6. Passive Verb -phrases. 

Forms of BE as Auxiliaries. 

EXERCISE 254. 

1. In each sentence tell the word that shows who or what performs 
the action. 2. Tell the word that shows who or what receives the 
action, or is affected by it. 3. Select each subject that represents 
the actor. 4. Select those subjects that name the receiver of the 
action. 5. What difference do you notice in the meaning of each 
two sentences ? 6. In their form ? 

.. ( The breeze fills the sails. 

( The sails are filled by the breeze, 
p j We celebrated the victory. 

1 The victory was celebrated by us. 
o ( Messengers will carry the news. 

1 The news will be carried by messengers. 
The government should protect the Indians. 
The Indians should be protected by the government. 
Congress has enacted a new tariff law. 
A new tariff law has been enacted by Congress. 



i 



212 VERBS. 

448. All the verb-forms that we have thus far studied belong to 
what is called the active voice, — that is, all of them represent the sub- 
ject as acting, and not as acted upon, — and as there is no single form 
in English that has a passive meaning, we are forced to use still another 
kind of phrase. 

449. We know that the perfect participle of transitive 
verbs may always have a passive meaning ; as, — 

driven, spoken, hired; 
and if we use this participle as an adjective complement 
with different tenses of the verb be ; as in — 

I am driven, It was spoken, You will be hired, 

we form verb-phrases which represent the subject, not as 
acting, but as acted upon, and which are therefore called 
Passive verb-phrases. 

450. Passive verb-phrases are made by using a passive par- 
ticiple with the various tenses of be, so as to represent the subject 
as receiving 1 the action. 

451. In this way any kind of verb-phrases, except the 
progressive, may be made passive. Thus : — 

" I may see/' or " I may be seen." 
" They might have stopped," or " They might have been stopped." 

And even progressive phrases are sometimes found in the 
passive form. As in — 

The prisoner was being tried for theft. 

The question is being very thoroughly discussed. 

452. Active and passive forms, or " voices," express 
the same thought when the object of the active form is 
made the subject of the corresponding passive form. 

Thus : — 

He heals the sick. = The sick are healed by him. 
Metals are expanded by heat. = Heat expands metals. 



PASSIVE PHRASES. 213 

(a) The active form brings the actor into prominence ; the passive, 
the receiver of the action. The passive form is generally used when 
the actor can not or need not be named. As, — 

The watch was stolen. Lost opportunities cannot be regained. 

453. A few intransitive verbs, that, in the active form, are fol- 
lowed by a preposition and its object, are sometimes made passive. In 
such cases the preposition, as an adverbial modifier, becomes almost a 
part of the verb, and its former object becomes the subject of the 
passive phrase. [See § 522.] Thus : — 

No one had thought of this. This had not been thought of. 
Our friends laughed at us. We were laughed at by them. 

EXERCISE 255. 

Change each verb in these sentences into either the passive or the 
active form, without changing the meaning: — 

1. The engine draws the train. 2. The story has been told by 
several writers. 3. England taxed the colonies unjustly. 4. Louisi- 
ana was sold by France in 1803. 5. Marco Polo tells us strange 
stories. 6. The Mississippi was discovered by De Soto in 1541. 
7. The prudent never waste time nor money. 8. The mortgage 
will be foreclosed by the executor. 9. Fire has destroyed the 
poor man's house. 10. Gold -is purchased for coinage by the gov- 
ernment. 11. Every patriot will defend the flag. 12. Friendship 
should be strengthened by adversity. 13. Would he believe the 
truth? 14. Paris had been besieged by the Prussians in 1871. 
15. Heaven is not mounted to on wings of dreams. 16. Some- 
body will probably attend to the matter. 17. Will any one interfere 
with his rights ? 

454. If we add to the inflected forms of a verb the 
various phrases that are based upon it, we shall have 
what may be called the Complete Conjugation of a Verb. 

The following tables present at one view all the common forms and 
phrases of a verb. Any verb may be conjugated by substituting its 
inflected forms for those of drive. 



214 



VERBS. 







i^N 






























o> 


























































}. 


i'? 




















^ 


^ 


<^~N 




a^ 


£ > 


/-> 




/""N 


/— v 






/ — \ 












w 




&C"w 




S~S • 


O 03 


'"^ 02 


O w 


o« 


'^ 03 


/-N ^ 


'^ 03 


r/i 


CO 


03 


OD 




O 03 


O 03 


6 03 


O 03 


O 03 


O CO 


O "3 


O co 


6 03 


O 03 


(X 


efi 


O 


<; 


^ 


(h rt 


jh e3 


S-t rt 


Jh c5 


^ es 


Sh C3 


fH CS 


^ d 


»- CS 


U cS 


Ph 


Ph 


Ph 


« 


53 


Ph P< 


Ph e- 


Pi Ph 


P* P^ 


w~ 


Ph Ph 


Ph Ph 


Ph ^ 


Ph ^ 


£! & 






^S 


Ph 


is 






















C 


a 


B 


Pm 


bCfl 


bCfl 


b»S 


bcfl 


b£ g 


be a 


bCfl 


bfifl 


boa 


bJDfl 


CD 

1 


CD 

13 


CD 

•g 

13 


P 




a cd 


B CD 


C CD 


fi CD 


a cd 


P CD 


B CD 


B CD 


B CD 


B CD 




*l 




'=1 


lis 


> > 

._! '1-1 






> > 




: =l 


< 




^STJ 


T3 13 


-O *& 


ro 13 


T3 13 


•73 TS 


T3 T3 


^ «d 


rSlfl 


rQlg 


^0 


* 
g 


cu 


« 






























^ 
























^— N 


.^~N 


^v 


«4 
























6 


6 


6 


S 


















„ 






fe 


Ph 


Cu 


k 


t 
















-o 






s >-^ 


^— ' 


v — ' 


CO 










g 


5S 


s 




— -■ — , 


g 


s 


be 


u 


be 


CO 








w 


V 


^ 


V 


rrt 


<i) 


IU 


a 


B 


_B 




CH 

o 






i-O 


-O 


rO 


hO 


3 


iO 


rO 


V 


> 


'.E 


o 














o> 




„ O 






"fl 


"^i 




o 


s. 


cu 














a 




^ 


T3 


T3 




j. 

X 
CD 

H 


8 
o 


» 










B 




d 


<3 










e 


^H 

o 
e 




> 03 

-B .B 




IS £h 


^ 03 

>» B 


fad o 

1^ 


cc 5 B 

2 "^ G 

Bob 


£CB g O 

C O ? IB 








CO 

« 
o 


M :5 

O "3 










CD 
> 


CD 
> 

T3 


CD 
> 

■c 

3 


CD 


CD 
> 








o 

M 
o 
O 


)H *H 

T3S 

IH 

o ^ 

CD "S 

£? 

>i "B 

•AS 


"3 S 


CD 

J 

03 ? 


S3 
CD 

is 

H 
13 

> 03 


a 

CD 

i- 


s 

CD 


o 
a 

o ^ 

^" CO 

>» B 


o 

B h 
o o 
o „ 

-B H 
bo o 


> 

rB 
>5 _ 03 

B § B 

Bob 


13 

a ? id 


CD 
> 

T3 


CD 
> 

H 

"6 


1 










l> 


cj 








S 


« 








CO 


g 




<U 




Oh 


Oh 


^s 




Oh 




8 




S 


H 


CO 


*i 


5~ 


w 




g 


§3 


sJ 


CU 




CO 


<J 


CO 




<4) 


CO 




w 


CO 






CO 


<u 




CiJ 




CIO 




J- 


e 
















e 




5 






Rh 


Q, 


^ 


4 


Oh 


&H 


Oh 


^ 


4 


Rh 


4 


^ 


4 
















• as 


ft 






•SIU.IOJ 8AT^B0I 


pui 




•sasuj 


•Id iBi^ua^oj 




c 
















«>£ 


M 

h- 1 






saoc 


>H a 


AIXO 


Kaii 


[flg < 


INV 


haixv; 


)iaKj 







CONJUGATION. 



215 



> 

< 


•iH 
> 

> * 

© © 

.§ 2 

c/2 Ph 


> 

• iH 

u 
•0 

o 

CD 
m 

ea 

Ph 


H 
O 

D 

1-5 

eq 


0) 

> 

■iH 

© 

^3 


0) 

> 

"3 


K 

M 

H 

G 
I— ( 


CD 
> 

•r* 
U 

u 
O V} 

© Cs 




> 


DO 

H 


;h 

Pw 


03 

Ph 


i 

c 
c 
p 

p 

i- 
e 

n 

p 

p 


> E 

2 H 

5 § 

] c H 

\ fc PI 
i ^ P4 

^ 
1 





•i~t 




0) 


«0 


CD 
> 


> 


/-N 


•iH 
iH 


*a 


a 


>C 


-r 




















^ 






j_! 


50 


^ 


c 


as 


« 




• 2 



^ 









^ -^ ^ ftn 
5 S « g 
O, ft, -5 § 



CO ec ^ ^5 

<^ Jj © © 

o; ^ 4 ^ 



ao 













a 


Jib 

*3 ^ 


a 

CD 














> 


> 


G 


CD 




a 

o 

> 
>d 


CD 
> 


ah 
S 

> 


iH 


U 


CD 
> 

1) 


> 




CD 


T5 


> 


JS * 


> 


*4) 


U 

•0 


- 


bD 


<w 


r=3 


-%»z 


«5 


or 



£ &< 






ft, 



ft, 



&2 



fts 

ft. 



216 VEEBS. 

EXERCISE 256. 
1. Tell the tense, mood, and form of each verb-phrase. Thus: — 

" May have gone " is a present potential phrase of the verh go. 
" Should be brought" is a past potential passive of the verb bring. 



1. I will go. 

2. Do go quickly. 

3. They are lost. 

4. If I were young . 

5. He might work. 

6. Do you sing. 

7. Can she sew? 

8. He has done it. 

9. Shall you be there? 

10. They will have come. 

11. We did not hear it. 



12. I should have gone. 

13. She had been writing. 

14. Prizes could have been won. 

15. The question has been settled. 

16. They are made in France. 

17. It is growing late. 

18. We should do right. 

19. I wish he were going. 

20. You may be trying it. 

21. I would never sign it. 

22. It had never been worn. 



2. Give the composition of each phrase ; i.e., tell of what verb- 
forms it is composed. Thus : — 

"Would have been broken" is made up of the past would, the infinitive have, the 
perfect participle been, and the passive participle broken. [See § 458.] 

EXERCISE 257. 

Write the following-named forms of bring, lay, tread, wear, obey, 
write, do, buy, have: — 

1. Present indicative progressive, third-singular. 2. Past indica- 
tive passive. 3. Future indicative (predict using "we" as subject). 
4. Future perfect indicative passive. 5. Present perfect indicative 
progressive, third singular. 6. Past perfect potential passive. 
7. Present indicative emphatic. 8. Past potential passive. 9. Pres- 
ent perfect indicative passive. 10. Present subjunctive. 11. Past 
subjunctive. 

455. How to Parse a Verb. A verb or verb-phrase is 
parsed by telling its 1. tense ; 2. mood; (3. phrase-form ;) 
4. kind ; 5. principal parts ; (6. number-form, if peculiar ;) 
and 7. subject. 



PARSING. 217 

Note. — This order of statement though not material is a convenient one, since it 
presents the faces as they appear in the successive elements of a verb-phrase. 

45(>. Forms for Parsings \_To be varied at the option 
of the teacherj] 

1. ["[When] (my) ship comes [in]l I shall be rich. 



2. He spoke [loud] [that they might hear him.] 

3. ["After we had been drifting [three davs]~] (a) sail was seen. 
L + "J 

comes is the present indicative of the complete verb " come, came, 
come " ; s-form with the third-singular subject ship. 

shall be is the future indicative of the copulative verb " be, was, been " ; 
its subject is I. 

spoke is the past indicative of the complete verb "speak, spoke, 
spoken " ; its subject is he. 

might hear is a past potential 1 of the transitive verb "hear, heard, 
heard " ; its subject is they. 

had been drifting is the past perfect indicative progressive of the com- 
plete verb "drift, drifted, drifted " ; its subject is we. 

■was seen is a past indicative passive verb-phrase formed from the 
transitive verb " see, saw, seen " ; was is used with the third- 
singular subject sail. 

457. In written parsing the abbreviations on page 219 
may be used. Thus : — 
comes = pr. ind. of com. V. "come, came, come"; s-form with 3d 

sing. S. ship, 
shall be = f. ind. of cop. V. "be, was, been "; S. I. 
spoke = pt. ind. of com. V. "speak, spoke, spoken " ; S. he. 
might hear = pt. pot. of tr.V. " hear, heard, heard " ; S. they, 
had been drifting = pt. pf. ind. pro. of com. V. "drift, drifted, 

drifted"; S. we. 
was seen = pt. ind. pass, from the tr.V. " see, saw, seen " ; was with 

3d sing. S. sail. 

1 Potential phrases have sometimes a subjunctive and sometimes an indicative mean- 
ing; but it is not expected that all learners will discriminate between the two uses. 



218 VERBS. 

458. Verb-phrases may be analyzed as follows : — 

might hear is made up of the past auxiliary might and the root-infini- 
tive hear. 

had been drifting is made up of the past auxiliary had, the perfect 
participle been, and the imperfect participle drifting. 

was seen is made up of the past auxiliary was and the jussive parti- 
ciple seen. 

Analysis of Verb-phrases. 

459. The verb-phrase is made by uniting the — 

(1) (2) (3) (4) 



root-infinitive ^ 

imperf. } m P erf ' 1 im P erf ' 



5 J-—* Perfect j part ._ ; ^ [part.-; P-fect 



passive j P assive J P assive J 



part. 



EXERCISE 258. 
1. Parse the verbs in these sentences : — 

1. Where shall you be ? 2. It cannot be found. 3. How busy you 
are. 4. Go quickly to the rear. 5. Be careful how you speak. 
6. The sun might have risen. 7. No one has yet seen it. 8. Would 
he go if he were I? 9. Were not the drums beating? 10. You should 
have gone at once. 11. The mill can never grind again with the 
water that is past. 12. We might have been called. 13. Nothing- 
must be assumed. 14. The train will have gone before he arrives. 
15. Could he have fled alone? 16. Is it rising now? 17. Did he 
write at your bidding? 18. Do not be discouraged by trifles. 
19. Come ye in peace, or come ye in war? 20. Ask and it shall be 
given you. 21. Could it not have been found sooner ? 22. I wish I 
were sailing the seas. 23. Have you had enough ? 24. How do you 
do this morning? 25. He had had the money for a week. 26. I am 
expecting to see him soon. 27. Take heed lest he fall. 28. If he 
were going he would take it. 29. When he next doth ride abroad 
may I be there to see. 30. You could not have been listening or you 
would have heard me. 31. There never has been another such man. 
32. Might it not have been done better? 

2. Analyze each verb-phrase. 



ERRORS IX USE OF VERB-FORMS. 



219 



*f\ 


SUMMAEY 


: FORM 


FOR PARSING VERBS. 


y\). 


Forms. 




Tenses 






Moods and Phrases. 




r Present 


dpr.) 




Indicative (ind.) 




Past 


O*0 


(2)< 


Subjunctive (sub.) 


is < 

the 


Future 


(/•) 




Imperative (i»p-) 


Pres. Perf 


{Pr.pf.) 




Potential (pot.) 




Past Perf. 


(pt-Pf-) 




Emphatic (empli.) 




> Put. Perf. 


(f-Pf.) 


(3)- 


Progressive (pro.) 
^ Passive (pass.) 



(1) 



Kinds. 

Pkin. Parts. 

f Complete (com.) (Present) 

(I) Of (or from) the { Copulative (cop.) Verb, (5) (Past) 



Transitive (tr.) 



(Perf. Part.) 



(6) 



Construction. 

Form for Subject. 
(common form) has for its subject 
s-form 



with third -singular subject 
solemn (eth) form 

solemn (est) form with second-singular subject thou. 



461. Derivative and Compound Verbs are made — 
(1) From adjectives, as sweeten ; (2) from nouns, as befriend, 
strengthen ; (3) from other verbs, as misspell, repay, untie, dis- 
like ; (I) by prefixing an adverb to an older verb, as undergo, over- 
throw, foresee. 



E. ERRORS IX THE USE OF VERB-FORMS. 

462. Wrong forms of the verb are very common. It is a promi- 
nent word, inflected more than any other part of speech, and hence 
leads one who is careless to make many conspicuous blunders. 



220 VERBS. 

463. Some of the very worst mistakes are made by 
substituting one of the principal parts for another. 

For example : Having as principal parts, pres. do, past did, per/. 
part, done, we should say in stating a past fact, " He did the work," 
not " He done the work" ; but in making a present perfect phrase we 
should say, "He has done the work," not "He has did the work." 

464. Trincifpal Parts confused, I. Do not use the per- 
fect participle as a substitute for the past tense. 

II. Never use the past tense instead of a past participle in 
making a verb-phrase. 

EXERCISE 259. 

Point out the error in each sentence, correct it, and give your 
reason. Thus : — 

" The bell has been rang." Incorrect. Rang is the past tense: the participle rung 
should be used with has been in making a verb-phrase. Say " The bell has been rung." 

"They come yesterday." Wrong. Do not use the perfect participle come as a sub- 
stitute for the past tense came. The sentence should read, " They came yesterday." 

1. Who done it ? 2. Soon it had sank to rise no more. 3. The 
pears were all shook off by the wind. 4. This lace was wove in 
France. 5. He run all the way. 6. They come in late yesterday. 
7. He soon begun to be weary. 8. Charles and I swum across the 
river. 9. I seen that yours was wrong. 10. He has rose from poverty 
to wealth. 11. Our club was never beat before. 12. If I had been 
showed, I should know how to do it. 13. She had tore it off. 



EXERCISE 260. 
Tell which form should be used here, and why : — 
1. I (seen, saw) him yesterday. 2. You might have (chose, chosen) 
something better. 3. Our friends (come, came) last week. 4. You 
must do as you are (bid, bade, bidden). 5. Some (drank, drunk) too 
much. 6. What evil has (befallen, befel) them? 7. She may have 
(went, gone) to Europe. 8. Have you ever (sang, sung) this tune ? 
9. Have they (drank, drunk) it all? 10. Have they (broke, broken) 
out the roads yet ? 



VERBS CONFUSED,, 221 



EXERCISE 261. 

Give the principal parts of the verb, tell which should be used, 
and why. 

1. Have you never (shrink) from your duty? 2. She may have 
been (smite) down. 3. His signature was (write) indistinctly. 4. It 
cannot have been (steal). 5. You might have (take) more pains. 

6. David (sling) the stone, and (smite) him on the forehead. 7. They 
have (strive) to do their best. 8. Intemperance has (slay) its thou- 
sands. 9. My directions were (forget). 10. The pond was (freeze) 
over. 11. Some one has (break) my pen. 

465. Some verbs have somewhat similar forms that are 
liable to be confounded. Especial care must be taken in 
using them. 

466. Verbs confused. Do not use one verb for another 
of similar form but of different meaning, 

EXERCISE 262. 

1. Learn the principal parts of these verbs, and their meaning : — 
Present. Past. Active Part. Perfect Part. 

lie (rest) lay (rested) lying (resting) lain (rested) 

lay (place) laid (placed) laying (placing) laid (placed) 

sit (rest) sat (rested) sitting (resting) sat (rested) 

set (place) set (placed) setting (placing) set (placed) 

2. Fill the blanks with the appropriate form of lie or lay, and its 
meaning. Thus: — 

"I laid (or placed) it on the table, and there it lies (or rests). 

1. Where did you it ? 2. How long has it there ? 3. At 

what wharf does your yacht — -? 4. It on the grass yesterday. 

5. It has there for years. 6. They have the corner-stone. 

7. He in bed till nine o'clock. 8. She has been there all 

day. 9. The ship to during the storm. 10. A thousand miles 

of pipe have been . ' 



222 VERBS. 

11. She now sleeping quietly. 12. We over two days in 

Montreal. 13. down, Bruno ! 14. He it carefully away in 

his safe, and there it has ever since. 15. it on the table, 

and let it there. 16. They have been new tracks. 17. Has 

it been there long ? 18. He was by the brook. 19. The 

body in state three days. 20. The city on the left bank of 

the river. 

3. Fill the following blanks with the appropriate form of sit or 
set, and its meaning : — 

1. Come into-the room. 2. The mother-bird is in her 

nest. 3. We out twelve elms last arbor-day. 4. Where did he 

? 5. I it on the shelf, and there it now. 6. Won't 

you here? 7. He motionless for an hour. 8. I have been 

in the arbor while you have been out your plants. 9. The 

court will in June. 10. Was he there then ? 

467. Improper forms. Never use any improper verb- 
forms ; as, " drawee! " for " drew." 



EXERCISE 263. 

1. Correct the errors in these sentences, giving the reason for the 
change. Thus : — 

" It laid for centuries undiscovered." Wrong. Laid, meaning " placed," is used 
where lay, meaning " rested," is required. Say " It lay for centuries undiscovered." 

" The wind blowed all night." Wrong. There is no such form as Mowed. Say 
" The wind blew all night." 

1. He has overdrawed his account. 2. He throwed the ball swiftly. 
3. His will had laid in his safe for years. 4. Have you heat the water ? 
5. Has the brook overflown its banks ? 6. I knowed you would lay 
down. 7. When was the horse shoed last ? 8. He ain't as wise as he 
appears. 9. The moon has lit us on our way. 10. I move that the 
motion lay on the table for one week. 11. Your coat doesn't set well 
(say/0- 

2. Distinguish between (1) born and borne, (2) durst and dared, 
(3) hung and hanged, (4) may and can, and use the correct form in 
the following blanks : — 



SHALL OR WILL. 223 

1. He was in Ohio. He was — — to his grave by his friends. 

2. The king not sign the warrant. We them to leap the 

brook. 3. Nathan Hale was as a spy. Have the pictures been 

securely ? 1. I shut the window. you discover the 

reason ? 

468. Whether to use SHALL or WILL. The two auxil- 
iaries used iu making the future tense have somewhat 
different meanings. 

469. I. Siynpily to foretell that something is going to hap- 
pen, use shall ivith "I" or "we" and will with other subjects. 

Thus: — 

We shall fail. I shall return in the spring. 
You, he, they, etc., will find the journey tiresome. 

470. II. To promise or to express a determination of 

the speaker, use will tvith "J" or "we" and shall ivith other 
subjects. Thus : — 

We will help you. I will send the money. 

She shall not go alone. They shall vacate the house at once. 

EXERCISE 264. 

Tell whether the auxiliary is used to promise, to show determi- 
nation, or simply to foretell : — 

1. I shall enter college next year. 2. I will have an education. 

3. My friends will help me. 4. Nothing shall stand in my way. 5. I 
shall answer his letter to-morrow. 6. The letter shall be answered at 
once. 7. I will walk ; no one shall carry me. 8. I shall walk ; no 
one will carry me. 9. You shall go with me, if you wish. 10. We 
will assist you at any time. 11. I shall be punished. He shall be 
punished. 12. Shall you attend the fair? Will you go with me ? 

471. III. In questions use the same auxiliary that ivoidd 
be correctly used in the reply. Thus : — 

If we wish to exact a promise, like " I will wait " or " We will go," 



224 VERBS. 

we ask, " Will you wait or go ? " But if we wish one to predict a 
future action by saying "I shall go," we must ask, " Shall you go?" 

Exception. Will is never used in a question with "I" or "we" as 
subject. Thus we say, — 

" Shall I find you there ? " not " Will I " etc. 
" Shall we come early ? " not " Will we " etc. 

472. Should and would follow the same rules as "shall" 
and " will." Thus : — 

I should not need your help, and, if I did, I 'would not ask it. 
I asked him whether he should go or stay (" Shall you go or 
stay?"), and he said he should stay ("I shall stay"). 
He said that he would go (" I will go "). 
He feared lest he should fall ("I shall fall"). 

EXERCISE 265. 
Fill each blank with a form of shall or will, giving the rule that 
guides you. 

1. We expect to hear from you. 

2. If I do not study, I grow up in ignorance. 

3. They receive the money to-morrow. 

4. I was afraid that I lose my position. 

5. We be pleased to hear that he soon return. 

6. If you telegraph, we come at once. 

7. When we call ? When you go with me ? 

8. I fear that we have unpleasant weather. 

9. Where you be next week ? 

10. I like to go to town, and go if I could. 

11. I be delighted if you call. 

12. I have been ill if I had gone. 

13. you do as he bids you? you do what I ask? 

14. you have sold it for that price ? 

15. I have asked for more time. 

473. Subjunctive forms are peculiar only — 

(1) In always omitting the endings s, st, eth, of the 
corresponding indicative ; 



SUBJUNCTIVE FORMS. 225 

(2) Iii that BE is used in place of am, art, is, or are, 
and WERE in place of was, wast, or wert. 

474. Present Subjunctive forms are now used chiefly 
in clauses expressing a supposition or a condition to be 
decided in the future. As in — 

If he ask a pardon, shall you grant it? 
If he go, he will not be missed. 

In such clauses, indicative forms are also used by good 
writers and speakers. 

475. Past Subjunctive forms must be used in clauses 
expressing a supposition or a wish contrary to the fact. 

As in — 

If he were ready (but he is not), he could go. 
I wish I were well (but I am not). 

(a) Indicative forms must be used to express what is assumed as a 
fact. As in — 

If he intends to go, he should go now. 
Though he is far from well, he is industrious. 
If he was poor, he was honest. 

EXERCISE 266. 

Select what seems the appropriate form of the verb, and give the 
reason for your choice. 

1. What would you say if you (was, were) asked? 2. I wish I 
(were, was) ten years younger. 3. If the book (be, is) in the library, 
you may take it. 4. If the book (was, were) in the library, you might 
take it. 5. that it (was, were) possible ! 6. If he (were, was) 
needy, we should help him. 7. Though he (be, are, is) needy, he 
will get no help. 8. If he (is, be) insane, his actions do not show it. 
9. If I (was, were) to be defeated, I should still persevere. 10. It 
would be a great disgrace if he (was, were) to fail. 11. I will come 
to-morrow if the weather (is, be) fine. 12. I will call upon him if he 
(be, is) now at home. 13. Take care lest it (is, are, be) injured. 



226 VERBS. 

14. I should not go unless I (was, were) prepared. 15. If that (be, 
is) the case, I will go. 16. I shall induce him to take it, whether he 
(wish, wishes) it or not. 17. Wait until the truth (is, be) known. 
18. Take care that nothing (is, be) lost. 

Errors in the Use of the s-fonii of Verbs. 

476. We have learned that the s-form of verbs is never 
used except in the present tenses of the indicative mood, 
with subjects that in meaning are of the third person and 
of the singular number. 

477. General Rule. A third-singular subject, and no 
other, requires the s-form of the verb. 1 

478. Was. Use was with " J" or a third-singular sub- 
ject, and never ivith " you " or any plural subject. 

EXERCISE 267. 

Point out the errors in the following sentences, and correct them, 
giving your reason. Thus : — 

" He don't try." Wrong. The third-singular subject " he " requires does, the s-form 
of the verb do. Say, instead, "He doesn't try." 

" There has never been many of that kind." Wrong. Has, the s-form of have, is 
used with " many," a subject not third-singular. The sentence should read, " There 
never have been many," etc. Rule: A third-singular subject, and no other, requires the 
s-form of the verb. 

1. Neither of them were correct. 2. From that source comes all 
our troubles. 3. It don't take long to cross the ocean. 4. Was you 
at the concert last night? 5. My scissors needs sharpening. 6. The 
memoranda is lost. 7. There has been many disappointments on this 
trip. 8. The fragrance of roses fill the air. 9. Each of the states have 
two senators. 10. Either of those reasons are sufficient. 11. Harder 
times never was seen. 12. The six days' work were ended. 13. What 
have become of your friends ? 14. The meaning of these words are 
easily found. 15. Which of these fractions are the larger? 16. Every- 

1 It will be understood that this rule can apply only to the present indicative tenses. 



EEEORS IN THE USE OF THE S-FORM. 227 

body have offered us congratulations. 17. There is a few more to 
be had. 

479. It is the meaning rather than the form of a sub- 
ject that affects the form of the verb. For example, in 
the sentence — 

The Three Clerks was written by Anthony Trollope, 
the subject is singular in meaning, for it names a single 
book. 

480. 1. Collective nouns are generally singular in 
meaning. Thus : — 

The jury renders its verdict. Our regiment loses its colonel. 
Here we refer to the collection as a whole or unit, and the s-form 
of the verb is required. 

2. Sometimes, however, we refer to actions of the indi- 
viduals in the collection. Thus : — 

The jury have returned to their homes. 
The regiment hold different opinions of him. 
Here the meaning is plural, and the s-form of the verb would be 
wrong. 

481. Collective Subjects require the s-form of the verb 
only in referring to the collection as a unit. 

EXERCISE 268. 
Tell which form of the verb should be used here, and give your 
reason : — 

1. The army (was or were) nearly annihilated. 2. The band (has 
or have) brought (its or their) instruments. 3. (Is or are) your family 
well? 4. The committee (was or were) unanimous in the choice. 
5. The fleet (was or were) separated. 6. The whole herd ran into 
the sea and (was or were) drowned. 7. Our club (hold or holds) (its 
or their) meetings every month. 8. (Have or has) the company 
broken up? 9. A large number (was or were) dissatisfied. 10. The 
number present (were or was) large. 11. The mob (have or has) dis- 



228 VERBS. 

persed. 12. The committee (has or have) made (its or their) report. 
13. Half the population (consist or consists) of blacks. 14. Grant's 
Memoirs (has or have) had a large sale. 15. The Virginians (was or 

were) written by Thackeray. 16. The audience which large 

(was or were) soon seated. 

Connected Subjects. 

482. Singular expressions joined by and are generally 
taken together as a plural subject. Thus : — 

He and I are going. Industry and perseverance win success. 
Making laws and enforcing them are very different. 

483. Subjects joined by AND. Use the s-form of the 
verb with singular subjects connected by and — 

only (1) When they name the same person or thing ; 
or (2) When they are preceded by each, every 9 many a, 
or no. 

For example : — 

(1) My friend and helper has deserted me. 

(1) A wheel and axle transmits the power. 

(2) Each lady and gentleman has received a copy. 
(2) Every city and town was visited. 

484. Subjects joined by OR or NOR. Use the s-form of 
the verb with third-singular subjects connected by or or nor. 

Thus: — 

One or the other visits London annually. 
Neither money nor influence was needed. 

EXERCISE 269. 

Select the proper form of the verb, and justify your selection. 
Thus : — 

"Neither hope nor courage remains." The s-form is here required, for the subject 
consists of two singular nouns, "hope" and "courage," which are joined by nor, and 
hence are to be taken separately. 



CONNECTED SUBJECTS. . 229 

"Both hope and courage are needed." The s-forra of the verb would be wrong, for 
the two nouns " hope " and " courage " joined by and make a plural subject. 

"Every boy and girl lias recited." The connected nouns "boy" and "girl" make 
a third-singular subject, for they are preceded by the adjective every, and so are to be 
taken separately. Hence the s-form of the verb is required. 

1. In every muscle there (is, are) strength and vigor. 2. Every 
beggar and spendthrift (receive, receives) his aid. 3. Neither father 
nor mother (was, were) living. 4. Every word and even every 
thought (is, are) known. 5. Each day and hour (bring, brings) 
(its, their) duties. 6. The rise and fall of the tide (are, is) to 
be explained. 7. The butcher and the baker (has, have) sent in 
(his, their) (bill or bills). 8. There (is, are) righting and blood- 
shed on the frontier. 9. A thousand dollars (are, is) too much to 
pay. 10. There (were, was) neither anger nor impatience in his 
tone. 11. To seem and to be (is, are) not always the same. 12. A 
beautiful poem or picture (has, have) a refining influence. 

13. Whether to advance or to retreat (were, was) the question. 
14. No pains and no expense (have, has) been spared. 15. Each 
hour, dark fraud or open rapine or protected murder (cry, cries) 
out against them. 16. Every leaf and flower (has, have) faded. 
17. His subject and mine (was, were) the same. 18. There (sleep, 
sleeps) the soldier, statesman, and martyr. 19. Wave after wave 
(come, comes) rolling in. 20. Nor eye nor listening ear an object 
(find, finds). 21. How T wonderfully (have, has) science and in- 
vention advanced. 22. Neither oil nor alcohol (are, is) as heavy 
as water. 

485. When subjects connected by or or nor differ in person or num- 
ber, the one nearest the verb generally controls its form. Thus : — 

Neither she nor I am invited. Either you or he knows it. 
Are you or he going? Neither he nor his children were saved. 
Expressions like these may generally be avoided. Thus : — 
She is not invited, nor am I. 

486. Of two subjects connected by as well as the first one controls 
the form of the verb that is expressed, and the second that of a verb 
understood. Thus : — 

The captain, as well as the crew, was lost. 
The crew, as well as the captain, were sick. 



230 VERBS. 

487. Of two subjects, one affirmative dnd the other negative, the 
affirmative one controls the form of the verb expressed, and the negative 
one that of a verb understood. Thus : — 

Not I but he is the one to go. Not he but I am going. The "war- 
riors, but not the chief, -were present. Not only this habit, but all 
similar ones are pernicious. 

488. As a relative pronoun has no form for number or person, the 
sense of the antecedent controls the form of the verb. Thus : — 

" I that speak unto you am he." " O Thou who changest not ! " 
"Our Father who sat in heaven." 

EXERCISE 270. 

Select the proper form of the verb, and give the rule that guides 
you. 

1. Equity, as well as justice, (demand, demands) it. 2. One or 
more persons (was, were) injured. 3. His painting was one of the 
best that (was, were) exhibited. 4. Not the causes, but the result, 
(were, was) stated. 5. Neither the interests nor the honor of the 
nation (was, were) affected. 6. You or he (are, is) to go. 7. Either 
he or I (is, am) to go. 

TEST QUESTIONS. 

I. What does the object of a transitive verb name? 2. Give two 
sentences, alike in meaning, in which the same word shall be used 
first as subject and then as object. 3. How many simple tenses has 
a verb ? 4. In what mood is the s-f orm used ? 5. How many inflected 
forms has bring? Mention them. 6. Which word in a verb-phrase 
shows its tense ? 7. How does a present progressive verb-phrase differ 
in form from a present passive verb-phrase ? 8. How in meaning? 

9. What is the difference between " Can I go ? " and " May I go ? " 

10. How must a passive verb-phrase be formed ? 

II. When is the s-form to be used ? 12. When is the s-form used 
with two singular subjects ? 13. With what kind of subjects is was 
never used ? 14. When would you use he as the subject of were ? 
15. Why is " Will I be safe ? " wrong ? 16. When is shall to be used ? 
17. Use the past tenses of lay and lie in sentences. 



CHAPTER XL 

ADVERBS. 

[Review §§ 73-79.] 

A. KINDS. 

489. As to Meaning. There are many adverbs, and 
they modify in many different ways ; yet they may all 
be divided, according to their meaning, into four princi- 
pal classes: — 

1. Adverbs of Time. As, now, then, always, never, next, last 

2. Adverbs of Place. As, here, there, down, hence, above. 

3. Adverbs of Manner. As, well, ill, thus, so, slowly, wisely, freely. 

4. Adverbs of Degree. As, much, very, almost, too, scarcely, quite. 

490. As to Use. With respect to their use, adverbs 
may be classified as Simple when they merely modify, 
and as Conjunctive when they also connect. 

EXERCISE 271. 

1. What is a clause ? 2. What kinds of clauses have you studied ? 
3. What is an adjective clause? 4. What is a noun-clause? 5. What 
is a conjunctive pronoun ? 6. A relative pronoun ? 7. Give the mean- 
ing of when, where, whence, whither, wliy, how, in the form of a phrase. 

8. Point out the adjective clauses in the following expressions, and 
tell what each modifies : — 

1. The place on which they stood . 

2. The time at which they started . 

3. The town from which they came . 

4. The land to which they went — — -. 

5. The reason for which they fled — -r, 



232 ADVERBS. 

9. What does each prepositional phrase modify? 10. Substitute a 
single word for each phrase. 11. What does the substituted word 
modify ? 12. To what part of speech does it therefore belong ? 

491. From the preceding Exercise we see that in 
adjective clauses certain adverbs may be used as the 
equivalent of a phrase made with a conjunctive pro- 
noun and a preposition. Thus : — 

This is the house where (in which) I was born. 
Here, as we know, "which" would connect the clause to house, and 
" in which " would modify was born like an adverb ; so its equivalent 
where does this double duty of modifying and connecting. 

492. Adverbs like when, where, whence, whither, 
why, how, that both modify a verb and at the same 
time connect a clause, are called Conjunctive adverbs. 

So with wherewith, whereon, whereby, and other compounds of where and a prepo- 
sition. 

(a) Conjunctive adverbs used in adjective clauses may be called 
relative adverbs. 

EXERCISE 272. 



1. Do you know who it is V 

2. Do you know where it is ? 

3. Do you know why he went ? 



4. Tell me what he wants. 

5. Tell me when he came. 

6. Tell me whence he came. 

1. In the first three sentences, what is the object of " do know " ? 
2. In the last three sentences, what is the object of "tell"? 3. What 
kind of clauses may be used as objects ? 4. Parse " who " and " what." 
5. What two uses has each ? 6. How are the other noun-clauses con- 
nected to the rest of the sentence ? 7. To what part of speech do 
ivhere, why, when, whence, belong? 8. What do they modify? 9. What 
have you learned to call such words when they also serve to connect ? 

493. From the foregoing illustrations we see that 
noun-clauses also may be joined to the rest of the sen- 
tence by conjunctive adverbs. Thus : — 

Show me how (= in what way) the problem is solved, 



ADVERB-CLAUSES. 233 

Here how is a conjunctive adverb ; for it takes the place both of the 
conjunctive adjective " what " and of the phrase " in what way," 
which modifies is solved like an adverb. 

EXERCISE 273. 

f Go early. f He died here. 

1. <{ Go at dawn. 2. -{ He died at his birthplace. 

I Go [when] day breaks. I He died [where] he was born. 

1. In the first group of sentences what tells when one is " to go " ? 
2. What kind of modifiers answers the question " when " ? 3. Which 
of the adverb modifiers in the first group is a clause ? Why ? 4. In 
the second group what answers the question " Where did he die " ? 
5. What kind of modifiers tells where ? 6. Which modifier in the 
second group is a clause? Analyze it. 7. Like what part of speech 
is it used? 8.' What then will you call it? 

494. The preceding Exercise shows us that a clause 
may do the work of an adverb as well as that of an adjec- 
tive or a noun, by showing when, where, why, and so on. 

Thus: — 

Go whenever (= at whatever time) he calls. 
Stand still wherever (= in whatever place) you are. 
Fight as (= in what way) a hero fights. 

These clauses, like adverbs, show when, where, and how one 
is "to go," "to stand," or "to fight," and are therefore 
called Adverb-clauses. 

They are joined to the verb of the sentence either by 
conjunctive adverbs or simply by conjunctions. [See 
§ 537.] 

495. An Adverb-clause is one used in a sentence like an 
adverb. 

496. A Conjunctive adverb is one that modifies some word 
in a clause, and connects the clause to the rest of the sentence. 

497. A Simple adverb is one that mollifies without connecting. 



234 ADVERBS. 

EXERCISE 274. 

1. Select the clauses, and tell their kind. 

2. Point out the adverbs, tell their kind and what they modify. 

1. When does the moon change? 2. Can you tell wherein they 
differ ? 3. Who knows whence he came ? 4. Where there is a will 
there is a way. 5. When the wine is in, the wit is out. 6. I know a 
bank where the wild thyme grows. 7. Whither I go ye know not. 
8. Come as the waves come when navies are stranded. 9. Thou canst 
not tell whence it cometh nor whither it goeth. 10. He works where 
the sun never shines. 11. Can you tell why the tides rise and fall? 
12. They are found in lands where frost is unknown. 13. How can 
the stream be turned ? 14. Whither thou goest I will go, and where 
thou lodgest I will lodge. 15. When the pyramids were built is un- 
certain. 16. I must know when he goes, where he goes, and how he 
goes. 17. This is the place where Franklin was born. 

498. Interrogative Adverbs. The adverbs how, when, where, 
why, whither, whence, when used to introduce a question, may be called 
interrogative adverbs. [See284&.] As in — 

How is it done? When did it happen ? Whence came he ? 

499. Modal Adverbs. Certain adverbs, like not, surely, 
certainly, perhaps, indeed, etc., are sometimes used to show that a 
statement is made in a positive or negative or doubtful way. Thus: — 

Surely you will not leave me. Perhaps he knows no better. 
When so used they may be called modal adverbs. 

500. Responsives. The words yes, yea, no, nay, used as re- 
sponses to questions, were once used like adverbs. We may call 
them responsives : but, like interjections, they do not properly belong 
to the parts of speech, being used now in the place of entire sentences. 
Thus: — 

" Are you coming ? " " Yes " ; (that is, " I am coming ") . 

501. Phrase-adverbs. Some little phrases, generally used as 
adverbs, cannot well be separated, and may be called phrase-adverbs. 
Among them are the following : — 



INFLECTION AND USES. 235 

At length; at last, at all; at once; as yet; by far ; for good ; at least; 
in general ; in vain; in short; of old; of late ; from below ; etc. 

502. There. The adverb there is frequently used without much 
of its original meaning to introduce a sentence in which the verb 
comes before its subject. Thus: — 

There were a thousand there. 

When so used it may be called an expletive. [See page 99.] 



B. INFLECTION AND USES. 

503. Comparison. Adverbs have, in general, no change 
of form. A few, however, are compared like adjectives. 
Thus: — 

soon, sooner, soonest; often, oftener, oftenest. 

(a) The adverbs ill, far, little, much, near, well, are 

compared irregularly like the adjectives of the same form. 
[See § 337.] . 

504. Many adverbs that are not compared may have 
a comparative or superlative meaning added by the use 
of more and most, or less and least. As, — 

quickly, more quickly, most quickly ; less quickly, least quickly. 

505. An adverb may modify not only a verb, an ad- 
jective, or an adverb, but also an infinitive, a participle, 
a preposition, a phrase, a clause, or even an entire sen- 
tence, as we have seen in § 499. . 

EXERCISE 275. 

Point out the adverbs, and show exactly what each modifies. 
1. Springing lightly into his saddle, he rode rapidly away. 2. It is 
lawful to do well on the sabbath day. 3. They live just beyond the 



236 ADVEEBS. 

mill. 4. He sailed nearly round the world. 5. How quickly night 
comes on. 6. Do precisely as you are bidden. 7. The paths of glory 
lead but to the grave. 8. Assuredly he cannot be mistaken. 9. Per- 
haps you will have no other opportunity. 10. The tunnel extends 
almost through the mountain. 

506. Adverbs used as Other Parts of Speech. For the use 

of adverbs as adjectives, see § 356 ; for their use as prepositions, § 522 ; 
as conjunctions, § 530. 

507. Parsing- Adverbs. To parse an adverb we have 
only to tell (1) its kind, and (2) what it modifies ; the 
form (3) need be mentioned only when comparative or 
superlative. 

Example. We work [more cheerfully] [[when] we are [well] paid]. 

more is a simple adverb in the comparative degree ; used to modify the 

adverb cheerfully, 
cheerfully is a simple adverb modifying the verb work, 
when is a conjunctive adverb modifying the verb are paid. 

508. This briefer form may be used : — 

more = sAv. ; comp. ; mod. av. cheerfully, 

cheerfully = sAv. ; mod. V. work, 
when = cAv. ; mod. V. are paid. 



509. SUMMARY: ADVERBS. 

Kinds. Forms. Uses. 

Simple (s) Positive (pos) Modifies the 

Conjunctive (c) Comparative {comp) Verb, Part., Inf. — * 
[Interrogative] (i) Superlative (sup) Adjective — . 
[Modal] (m) Adverb — . 

Preposition, etc. — • 

EXERCISE 276. 
Parse the adverbs in Exercises 113-115, Part I. 



ERRORS IN THE USE OF ADVERBS. 237 

510. Derivative and Compound Adverbs. (1) A great num- 
ber of adverbs end in -ly, and are formed from adjectives; as hot, 
hotly; wise, wisely; able, ably. . 

(2) Others are made from various parts of speech — 

(«) With the suffixes -wise or -ward ; as, upward, homeward, 
likewise ; or — 

(b) With the prefixes a-, be- ; as, afoot, besides. 

(3) Some adverbs are compounded of other words ; as, forever, 
sometimes, henceforth. 

511. What may be used as an Adverb, (a) Many words 
taken from among the Adjectives are used without change of form 
as adverbs. Thus : — 

high, fast, much, little, far. 

(b) Many words that have become Prepositions or Conjunctions 
sometimes keep their former use as adverbs. Thus : — 

He stood up. They go hence. 

(c) A Phrase may be used as an adverb [§ 519]. Thus : — 

I shall go by and by. He came at night. 

(d) A Clause may be used as an adverb [§ 494] , 



C. ERRORS IN THE USE OE ADVERBS. 

512. Adjective for Adverb, Never use an adjective 
where an adverb is required. Thus : — 

"He reads slow and distinct" is wrong. The adjectives "slow" 
and "distinct" should not be used to describe the manner of reading. 
The sentence should be " He reads slowly and distinctly." 

513. Adverb for Predicate-adjective* Never use an 

adverb in place of an adjective to complete a copulative verb. 

" Miss Ward looked beautifully " is wrong. " Looked " is a copulative verb, for the 
meaning is "She was beautiful in appearance." We should therefore use a predicate- 
adjective, and say, " Miss Ward looked beautiful." 



238 ADVERBS. 

514. Double Negatives, Use only one negative in mak- 
ing a denial. 

"He has never had nothing to do with if' should be "He has 
never had am/thing to do with it." The two negatives neutralize 
each other, and spoil the meaning of the sentence. 

(a) Never use such expressions as "I don't scarcely ever go," or " We 
do not hardly expect it," when the meaning is, "I scarcely ever go," 
or "I hardly expect it." 

(b) Such expressions as " We are not unmindful of your kindness ; " 
" He is never unwilling to learn " are right and convey just the mean- 
ing intended. What is the meaning? 

515. Adverbial expressions should be so placed in the 
sentence as to convey just the meaning intended. Compare — 

Only the address can be written on this side (nothing else). 
The address can only be written on this side (not printed). 
The address can be written on this side only (not on the other). 

EXERCISE 277. 

Point out the errors in the following sentences, and give the rule 
violated : — 

1. A miser never gives anything to nobody. 2. I never hear from 
him scarcely. 3. How sweetly the music sounds ! 4. He was toler- 
able well-informed. 5. The princess looked extremely beautifully. 
6. We reached home safely and soundly. 7. Did not the young man 
appear awkwardly? 8. We shall not go this week, I don't think. 
9. This water tastes strongly of sulphur. 10. What we do easiest, 
we ought to do well. 11. The fruit looks well ; but it tastes badly. 
12. How strangely everything seems in this light ! 13. Matters look 
badly for him. 14. Do you feel badly ? 

Say rather " Do you feel ill, tired, unhappy t " " Bad " is indefinite and ambiguous. 

15. I want to go to Florida very badly. 16. It isn't only a short 
distance. 17. He stood silently and alone. 18. Speak more distinct 
if you can. 19. He hasn't but one chance more. 20. How very 
strangely your voice sounds ! 21. The children were very pleased with 
their presents. He was too confused to speak. 

Very and too should never be used to modify a participle. 



TEST QUESTIONS. 239 

22. Do you intend to sing or no ? 23. I feel very doubtfully about 
it to-day. 24. Most all men are ambitious. 

Never use most when you mean almost. 

25. I never liked neither him nor his opinions. 26. You are too 
frightened to be of any use. 27. Three of the crew only reached the 
shore. 28. He desired to be rich very much. 29. I shall be glad to 
see you always. 30. There only was a solitary fort where Chicago 
stands fifty years ago. 31. Deaf mutes can only talk with their hands 
or lips or eyes. 

TEST QUESTIONS. 

1. How does an adverb differ from an adjective? 2. Use "hard" 
both as adjective and as adverb, in the same sentence. 3. To what is 
a conjunctive adverb equivalent? 4. Use "when" both as a simple 
and as a conjunctive adverb. 5. Give a sentence containing a prepo- 
sition modified by an adverb. 6. What three kinds of clauses may 
be introduced by a conjunctive adverb? 7. Give sentences contain- 
ing clauses of each kind. 8. What is a modal adverb ? 9. Parse 
" there " in " There's a good time coming, boys." 10. Parse the ad- 
verbs in " It can be very much more easily done." 



CHAPTER XII. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

[Review pages 51-57.] 

516. Prepositions are comparatively few in number; 
and, though they do not themselves modify other words, 
they are necessary to show how different ideas are related 
to each other. They help to make phrases that modify 
like adjectives and adverbs. 

517. The object of a preposition may be, — 

1. A Noun : The farmers are at work in the field. 
or some expression equivalent to a noun ; as, — 

2. A Pronoun : I went from you to her. 

3. An Infinitive : Thank him for doing the errand. 

4. A Phrase : The Indians fired from behind the trees. 

5. A Clause : I am surprised at what you say. 

(a) The object sometimes precedes the preposition, espe- 
cially in poetry. Thus : — 

The heavy night hung dark the hills and waters o'er. 

Uses of Prepositional Phrases. 

518. A prepositional phrase may be used like an adjec- 
tive — 

(1) To modify a noun or a pronoun ; as in — 

There is no hope of rescue. Which of you will go ? 
or (2) As a subjective complement; as in — 



PHRASE-PREPOSITIONS. 241 

Your friend is in good spirits. They are of great service. 

(a) When used as an adjective, it may be called an adjective phrase. 

519. A prepositional phrase may be used like an adverb 
to modify — 

1. A Verb : Go in haste | to the town | for the doctor. 

2. An Infinitive : To waste in youth is to want in age. 

3. A Participle : Bees coming to hives laden with honey. 

4. An Adjective : The narrative is full of interest. 

5. An Adverb : She did well for a beginner. 

(a) When used as an adverb, it may be called an adverb-phrase. 

520. A prepositional phrase may be used like a noun, 
as subject, object, etc., — especially after from. Thus : — 

They came from across the seas. 

Out of sight is out of mind. 

EXERCISE 278. 

Point out the prepositional phrases in Exercise 301, and tell 
whether they are used as adjectives or as adverbs. 

521. Phrase-prepositions. Some little phrases are so 

much like single prepositions in their use, that, instead 

of separating them, we may call them phrase-prepositions. 

Thus : — 

from ^ In \ 

It crawled out of > a hole. As to > color, this is perfect. 

from out) As for) 

The following are some of the phrases most commonly used as 
prepositions : — 

According to; as to; as for ; along with; instead of; out of; in spite 
of; in front of; by means of; on board; etc. 

522. Prepositions as Adverbs or Conjunctions. Most 
of the prepositions were once adverbs, and are often used as such 
[§511,6]. Thus: — 



242 PREPOSITIONS. 

It isn't worth talking about. How was it disposed of? 
Sometimes they become conjunctions [§ 537]. Thus : — 
Stay till I come. We started before the moon rose. 

523. Parsing" Prepositions. A preposition is parsed (1) 
by stating that it is a preposition, and (2) by showing how 
it is used. 

These forms may be followed : — 

[In his garden] grew flowers (of every hue). 

in is a preposition, used with its object garden to make a phrase that 
modifies grew. 

of is a preposition, used with its object hue to make a phrase modify- 
ing flowers. 

524. Following the briefer form, we write — 

in = prep. ; with O. garden, mod. grew, 
of = prep. ; with O. hue, mod. flowers. 

EXERCISE 279. 

1. Parse the prepositions in the following sentences. 

2. What words are here adverbs that are often prepositions? 

1, From peak to peak the rattling crags among leaps the live 
thunder. 2. This is the house that he lives in. 3. Come on ; let us 
go in. 4. Will you stay till after dinner? 5. These jewels came 
from across the sea. 6. As to that, men differ in opinion. 7. He ran 
from under the tree. 8. All excepting him have gone. 9. But one 
remains. 10. All but one have gone. 11. There is nothing to be 
done now but to retreat. 12. Quit yourselves like men. 13. Look 
the whole world over, and you will not find it. 14. Judging from 
what he says, I believe him honest. 

3. Parse the prepositions in any of the Exercises in this book. 

525. Errors in the use of Prepositions, Care must be 
taken to use appropriate prepositions. Thus : — 



EBBOBS IN THE USE OF PEEPOSITIONS. 243 

Between refers to two objects : Divide the money between the two 

claimants. 
Among refers to more than two objects : Divide the money among the 

crew. 
Into and to follow verbs of motion ; in and at verbs of rest: Go into 

the house and remain in it. He is at home. 
Say "I met him in the street," "in the car," "in the train," "in a 
steamboat," rather than "on the street," etc. 

Say "different from," not "different to " nor "different than"; as, 
"Mine is different from yours." 

526. Bo not use prepositions needlessly nor omit them 
token tlxey are required. Thus : — 

I do not wish /or your services. Omit for. 
The book is no use to me. Say " of no use." 

EXERCISE 280. 

Point out and correct the errors in these sentences, giving your 
reason : — 

1. This work is different to any that have appeared. 2. When 
shall you be to home ? 3. I should have gone if I had been able to. 
4. Do smell of these flowers. 5. The signing that note was a mis- 
take. 6. Leave more space between each column. 7. Let us go in 
the park. 8. His answer was very different than yours. 9. I could 
prevail with him to go. 10. Try to profit from the failures of others. 
11. There is constant rivalry between the four roads. 12. He was 
presented with a valuable testimonial. 13. We arrived on a late 
train, and stayed in the hotel till morning. 14. On what street do 
you live ? 15. Virtue and vice differ widely with each other. 16. How 
do you reconcile such actions to what he said? 17. First become 
reconciled with thy brother. 18. A preposition is a bad word to end 
a sentence with. 19. Is he worthy your confidence? 20. He plays 
on the organ very skilfully. 21. It is no use to try. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 
[Review pages 58-62.] 

527. Since we first defined conjunctions (§ 98) we 
have studied several other kinds of connective words : — 

(1) The conjunctive pronouns who, which, that, what, etc., which, 
while they connect, also do the work of nouns and pronouns ; 

(2) The conjunctive adverbs when, where, while, etc., which, be- 
sides connecting, always modify; and — 

(3) Trie prepositions, which show the relation between words. 

We now come to genuine Conjunctions, the chief use 
of which is to connect the parts of compound and complex 
sentences. 



KINDS. 

528. Conjunctions are divided according to their use 
into two classes : (1) co-ordinating conjunctions, that 
connect the parts of a sentence so that they remain alike 
in rank or construction ; and (2) subordinating conjunc- 
tions, that make one of the connected parts dependent 
upon or a part of the other. 

" Co-ordinate " means of equal rank; " subordinate," of inferior ranJc. 

529. I. Co-ordinating- conjunctions are used to con- 
nect (1) The members of a compound sentence. Thus : — 

The floods came, and the winds blew, but it fell not. 
We must overcome evil, or it will overcome us. 



COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS. 245 

(2) Words, 'phrases, and clauses having the same con- 
struction. Thus : — 

Bright and happy children were running or playing there. 
True friends are the same in prosperity and in adversity. 
I do not know when he came nor whither he went. 
(«) Co-ordinating conjunctions are sometimes used at the begin- 
ning of a separate sentence to connect it in meaning with what 
precedes. 

530. We give the name co-ordinating conjunctions 
first to and, but, or, nor, which do nothing but connect ; 
secondly, to certain words which, though they retain their 
adverbial meaning, serve principally to show the connec- 
tion between the members of a compound sentence. 
Thus : — 

I do not believe in the change ; however, I shall not oppose it. 
(a) Therefore, hence, still, besides, consequently, yet, likewise, moreover, 
else, then, also, accordingly, nevertheless, notwithstanding, etc., are words of 
this kind. Try to form sentences beginning with them, and you will 
see that they refer to what has been said before in each case. 

531. A Co-ordinating conjunction is one that joins sen- 
tences or parts of sentences having the same rank. 

532. We can if we wish divide all co-ordinating conjunctions 
into four classes : — 

1. Copulative, or such as merely join together, like and. 

2. Alternative, or such as offer a choice between two, like or. 

3. Adversative, or such as imply that one part is opposed to the other, 

like but. 

4. Causal, or such as assign a cause, a reason, a result, etc., like for. 

533. Correlatives. Some conjunctions, called correla- 
tives, are used in pairs, one before each of the connected 
parts to make their connection more evident. Thus : — 

I have both seen and heard the orator. 

They are to meet us either in Paris or in London. 



246 CONJUNCTIONS. 

Give me neither poverty nor riches. 
Whether to go or to return is the question. 

Note. The first word of each pair may be parsed as an auxiliary or assistant con- 
junction helping the other to do the connecting. 

EXERCISE 281. 

Point out the conjunctions, and explain what each connects. 

1. He is libera], but he is not generous. 2. They are poor, yet they 
are not needy. 3. Both he and I are going. 4. I believed ; therefore 
have I spoken. 5. That route is dangerous : besides we have no guide. 
6. The book is not perfect: still it is very helpful. 7. Either Ham- 
let was insane, or he feigned insanity. 8. The sea is rough, for I 
hear the surf. 9. He yields neither to force nor to persuasion. 

10. The fault is neither yours nor mine, but theirs. 11. I have 
had experience both in sickness and in health. 12. But I can never 
be natural enough, even when there is the most occasion. 13. As to 
the book you mention, I am in doubt whether to read it or not. 
14. We cannot go, nor should you. 15. He is a genius, though he 
does not seem so. 

534. Punctuation. Rule. — When the members of a 
compound sentence are long, or much like separate sen- 
tences, the semicolon or the colon must be used between 
them instead of the comma. [See § 96.] 

535. Subordinating- Conjunctions. If we unite the 

sentences, — 

Bain has fallen. The grass is wet, 

by the co-ordinating conjunction " and " ; thus, — 
Rain has fallen, and the grass is wet, 

we make a compound sentence with co-ordinate members ; 

that is, with members of equal rank. But if we unite 

them by the conjunction " because " ; thus, — 

The grass is wet, because rain lias fallen, 

we change their relation and rank, and make one of them 



SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS. 247 

an adverb-clause that gives a reason for the other, by tell- 
ing why the grass is wet. 
So too in the sentences, — 

It will dry after the sun has risen. (When ?) 
We must hasten, that we may meet our friends. (Why?) 
We shall wait if tliey have not come. (On what condition ?) 
the conjunctions after, that, if, change what might be independent 
sentences into adverb-clauses that modify verbs by showing when, 
why, on what condition, etc. 

536. Conjunctions of this kind connect two sentences 
by changing one of them into a clause which becomes part 
of the other, and they are therefore called subordinating. 

537. Most subordinating conjunctions are used to make 
adverb-clauses, which may modify in a variety of ways. 
Thus, they may denote : — 



1. Time: We waited after \ le f ore ' since ' I 
( till, until, ere, ) 

< for, since, as, ) jouask . L 
( inasmuch as, ) 



you came, 
ere, ) 

2. Cause or Reason : I will go because 

3. Manner: Work as if (as though) you were paid. 

4. Comparison : { The ni §' hts are lon 9 er than the da V s l> re ]- 

( Yenus is more distant than the moon \is~] . 

- < Condition, ( I will go if \ unless I he needs me. 

0> 1„ . , < (provided ) 

( Concession, etc. : / J . 

^ 1 hough {although) he is poor he is content. 

6. Purpose or Result : \ Take 8 ood ™ re thai ( les thei J esca P e - 

I Exercise daily, that you may grow strong. 



538. The subordinating conjunction that (and some- 
times whether) is often used in making a noun-clause. 
Thus the sentences — 

He was wrong. We knew that fact, 



248 CONJUNCTIONS. 

when united by that become — 

We knew that he was wronq. 

So- 

Ask whether the steamer has sailed. 

539. A Subordinating conjunction is one that changes an 
assertion into a clause, and connects it to the rest of the sentence. 

540. Phrase-conjunctions. Some little phrases are used to con- 
nect like single words. For example : — 

Corn as well as wheat may be raised here. 
I shall go inasmuch as he has invited me. 
The most common phrase-con.j unctions are as if, as though, as well 
as, forasmuch as, provided that, seeing that, so that, in order that, etc. 

541. Parsing" Conjunctions. In parsing a conjunction 
we are to tell (1) its kind, and (2) what it connects. The 
following forms may be used : — 



1. He spoke and acted [as if (his) life were in danger] . 

and is a co-ordinating conjunction, and connects the two verbs spoke 
and acted. 

as if is a subordinating phrase-conjunction, and connects the adverb- 
clause to spoke and acted, which it modifies. 



A 



2. [After we had sailed] we found that (the) ship leaked. 

after is a subordinating conjunction, and connects the adverb-clause 

to found, which it modifies. 
that is a subordinating conjunction, and joins the noun-clause to 

found, of which it is the object. 

542. Following the briefer form we may write : — 

and = co. conj . ; connects the verbs spoke and acted, 
as if = sub. ph.-conj. ; connects avc. to spoke and acted, 
after = sub. conj. ; connects avc. to found, 
that = sub. conj. ; connects nc. to found. 



FORMS FOR PARSING. 249 

543. Punctuation, Rule. — Adverb-clauses must gen- 
erally be set off by commas unless they are very short or 
immediately follow the ivord that they modify. 



5±4t. SUMMARY: FORMS FOR PARSING. 

f Co-ordinating (<%>) ^ 

Kinds. is a \ Subordinating (sub) \- Conjunction (conj) ; 

t Correlative (cor) J 

f words and . 



Uses. 



, phrases and 

It connects the co-ordinate i , , 

clauses and - 



[ members and 

It connects the adverb- (or noun-) clause to 

fc It helps to connect and . 



EXERCISE 282. 

1. Parse the prepositions in the following sentences. 

2. Analyze the sentences, and parse the conjunctions. 

1. Though I admire his courage, I detest his cruelty. 2. Remain 
until sunset. 3. Do not go until the sun has set. 4. Think twice 
before you speak. 5. I have not seen my friend since he returned 
from Dublin. 6. If I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes. 7. I 
am proud that I am an American. 8. We know that the moon is 
uninhabited. 9. That the moon is uninhabited is well known. 

10. The fact that the moon is uninhabited is well known. 11. It is 
well known that the moon is not inhabited. 12. The fact is that the 
moon has no inhabitants. 13. As Csesar loved me, I weep for him . 
14. Come down ere my child die. 15. It is more than heart can bear. 
16. Language was given us that we might say pleasant things to each 
other. 17. If spring is without blossoms, autumn will be without 
fruit. 18. It was so cold that the mercury froze. 19. He failed in 
business because he was dishonest. 



250 CONJUNCTIONS. 

545. Errors in the Use of Conjunctions. Observe 
these rules : — . 

1. Do not use or for nor as the correlative of neither. 
" Neither you or I " should be " Neither you nor I." 

2. Do not use Mice instead of as or as if. 

He acted like (as if) he was crazy. Sing like (as) I do. 

3. Do not use but for than after other or any compara- 
tive word. 

I have no other friend but (than) you; or, I have no friend but you. 

4. Do not use but what for that or but that. 

I have no doubt but what (that) he did it. 

5. Do not use if when you mean whether. 

See if (Whether) he can go. 

EXERCISE 283. 
Correct the following sentences : — 
r l. I have no other reason but this. 2. I did not know but what 
you were busy. 3. He will neither come in or go out. 4. Is there no 
one else but he to go? 5. He no sooner sees me, but he runs to 
meet me. 6. He walked like he was lame. 7. He did not deny but 
what he owed the money. 8. I can't say if he will be here or not. 

TEST QUESTIONS. 

1. What may the object of a preposition be? 2. Give examples. 
3. "What parts of speech may the phrase resemble? 4. Use one as ad- 
jective, as complement, as adverb. 5. Explain the difference between 
prepositions and conjunctions. 6. Between the two kinds of conjunc- 
tions. 7. Discriminate between the italicized words in " after sunset," 
and " after the sun had set " ; in " I have not seen him since noon," 
and "Since it is true, he must go." 8. In "Act as you feel"; "As I 
looked, it fell " ; " She is not so tall as you," as is a conjunctive ad- 
verb. In "As life is short, improve it," as is a conjunction; and in 
" This is such as I want," as is a pronoun. Try to explain why. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

INTERJECTIONS, Etc. 

546. We call interjections one of the parts of speech because they 
are spoken and written as words ; but they cannot enter into the con- 
struction of sentences, being only "thrown in between" them. 

They are half-way between ordinary language and the language 
of coughing, laughing, crying, and so on, which they are made to 
imitate. 

547. Among commonly- written interjections &re in- 
cluded — 

I. Words used instead of an assertion to express feeling" 
of various kinds : — 

(a) Surprise or wonder; as, oh, ah, lo, whew. 

(b) Pleasure, joy, exultation ; as, oh, ah, aha, hey, hurrah. 

(c) Pain, sadness, sorrow ; as, oh, ah, alas, alack, lack-a-day. 

(d) Contempt, disgust; as, pshaw, fie, fudge, pooh, ugh, bah. 

II. Words used instead of a question; as, eh? ah? hey? 

III. Words used instead of a command : — 

(a) To call attention; as, O, lo, ho, hem, hollo, ahoy. 

(b) To silence; as, hist, hush, whist, 'st, mum. 

(c) To direct, expel, and so on; as, whoa, gee, haw, scat. 

IY. Words used to imitate sounds made by animals, 
machines, and so on. As, — 

bow-wow, ba-a-a, pop, bang, ding-dong, rub-a-dub, whiz, 
whir-r, patter. 
Notice the sound of such verbs and nouns as grunt, buzz, roar, 
crash, hiss, puff. 



252 INTERJECTIONS. 

Other Exclamatory Words. 

548. Many ordinary words and phrases are often used 
independently as mere exclamations, when their real mean- 
ing is hardly thought of. So with — 

(1) Nouns and pronouns : fire, nonsense, mercy, shame, what. 

(2) Verbs : help, behold, look, see, begone, hark, listen. 

(3) Adjectives : hail, well, welcome, strange, good, bravo. 

(4) Adverbs, prepositions, and phrases: out, indeed, how, why, 
back, forward ; on, up ; amen, O dear, dear me, farewell, adieu, 
good-by, good-day. 

549. When such an expression, even though used alone, 
retains its original meaning, we may supply what is omit- 
ted, and treat the word as part of a sentence. Thus : — 

Silence ! (keep silence !) Good ! (that is good !) 

550. Sometimes, as when greatly excited, we abandon sentences 
altogether, and utter only the most important words ; as, — 

A sail ! a sail ! Now for the boats ! Down with it ! 
Steady ! Lower ! To your oars, men ! 

551. Punctuation, Rule. — Every interjection but 
must be followed by an exclamation point when used in a 
very exclamatory way. 

EXERCISE 284. 

1. Write sentences, using each of these words in the right way : — 
O ! ahoy ! alas ! what ! ho ! Oh ! eh ! pshaw ! hark ! sh ! 

2. Give five or ten words used to imitate different animals. 

3. What animals do you think the following are made to imitate ? 

tu-whit, tu-whoo ; whir-r ; buzz ; chick-a-dee ; 
whip-poor-will; twitter; chirp; bellow; whinny. 



CHAPTER XV. 

INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 
[Review §§ 402-412.] 

552. Of the vast number of words that have been derived from 
verbs, the greater part keep only the idea of the verb without any- 
verbal uses. Thus, though "rider" means "one that rides" it is 
treated in sentences merely as a noun. 

But what we have called " Verbal Nouns and Verbal Adjectives " 
are a peculiar kind of verbal words that need to be studied by them- 
selves. 

553. Infinitives are in their nature partly nouns. First, 
being names (of actions, etc.), they are nouns, and they 
have the uses of nouns. Secondly, though they cannot 
assert, they are like verbs in meaning and they take the 
same modifiers or complements. Thus in — 

I wish to drive my horse slowly, 
to drive, like a noun, is the object of "wish," and, like a verb, it ex- 
presses action, has an object, "horse," and is modified by an adverb, 
"slowly." 

554. Participles are in part adjectives, for they modify 
nouns and pronouns ; and they are in part verbs, for they 
take the same modifiers or complements. They do not 
assert that a thing does or is so and so, but they describe 
it so as to imply as much. Thus, in the sentence — 

I met a man driving his sheep to market, 
driving, like an adjective, modifies " man," and, like a verb, takes an 
object, "sheep." It describes the man as acting without asserting 
anything of him. 



254 INFINITIVES. 

Note. We might very well apply the name " participle " to all words that share or 
participate in the nature of two parts of speech ; hut hy custom we keep this name for 
verbal adjectives, and call the nouns infinitives. 

EXERCISE 285. 

1. Tell in what respect these infinitives are nouns and how they 
resemble verbs: — 

1. To get wisdom is a noble ambition. 2. Making money absorbed 
his time. 3. Many have tried to reach the north pole. 4. Columbus 
won immortality by discovering a new world. 5. To try again is to 
succeed. 6. Giving quickly is giving twice. 

2. Tell in what respect each participle is like a verb and like an 
adjective : — 

1. I heard the birds singing merrily. 2. The vessel entered port 
badly damaged by the storm. 3. The men are aloft furling the main- 
sail. 4. The water flowing from the rock makes a pool. 5. Saying 
this, he withdrew. 6. We found him beaten, wounded, and left for 
dead. 



I. INFINITIVES. 
A. KINDS OR FORMS. 

555. Nearly every verb has two simple infinitives ; as, — 

(to) drive, driving; (to) run, running; 
named from their forms the Root-infinitive and the In- 
finitive in ing, [Foot-note, page 195.] 

556. As verb-phrases are used instead of inflected 
forms, so too infinitive phrases are used instead of the 
simple forms to express certain changes of meaning. 

Thus, like the root-infinitive we have : — 

Simple Forms. Perfect Forms. 

to drive to have driven 

Progressive, to be driving to have been driving 

Passive. to be driven to have been driven, 

and like the infinitive in ing we have : — 



SIGN OF THE INFINITIVE. 255 

Simple Forms. Perfect Forms. 

driving having driven 

Progressive, (being driving) 1 having been driving 

Passive. (being driven) 2 having been driven. 

[For the use of all these forms as nouns, see § 564, and compare 
§ 581.] 

EXERCISE 286. 

1. Find names by which to designate each of the following infini- 
tives. Thus: — 

*' To have been driven " is a perfect passive infinitive. 
to sing having found to be giving 

to be lost printing to be given 

to have given to have been writing being obeyed 

2. Give the root-infinitive phrases of the following words : — 
show; learn; leave; ring; blow; do; teach; fight; eat; bend. 

3. Give also the phrases that are based on the infinitive in ing. 



To, the "Sign" of the Infinitive. 

EXERCISE 287. 

Look carefully below for whatever can be called a prepositional 
phrase. 

1. The wagon was used for carting wood. 

2. The wagon was used to cart wood. 

3. The man was hired to cut wood. 

4. I am rejoiced at seeing you. 

5. We are glad to see you. 

6. I came for the purpose of telling you. 

7. We are here to inform you. 

8. They furnish steam for driving the engine. 

9. We have brought wood to burn. 

10. Help me in building my house. 

11. Help me to build my house. 

1 A rare form, as in " punished for being out driving." 

2 Also a rare form. [See § 451.] 



266 INFINITIVES. 

12. They carried water for drinking. 

13. The people have nothing to eat. 

14. On hearing you we were convinced. 

15. To hear you one would be misled. 

557. In each of the foregoing sentences for practice 
there is a prepositional phrase used to show the purpose, 
cause, object, etc. Both infinitives are used in much the 
same way, whether preceded by for, in, on, at, or to, and 
the word to resembles an ordinary preposition. Thus : — 

A time to dance = a time for dancing. 

She is pleased to be asked = pleased at being asked. 

Help me to make ready = in making ready. 

558. Explanation. (1) To as a preposition with the 
infinitive was formerly used only to make a phrase ex- 
pressing purpose ; as, — 

We wait to see you. 

(2) Afterward this common phrase was used in express- 
ing many ideas besides that of purpose, and often for such 
ideas as we should now use different prepositions in ex- 
pressing; as, — 

The water is good to drink (for drinking). 

I forced him to laugh (into laughing). 

He failed to appear (of appearing). 

I regret to hear (at hearing). 

She was wise to make that choice (in making it). 

(3) Finally to came to seem a part of the infinitive 
which -even now it generally accompanies, — though not 
always. It means nothing of itself and serves only as a 
sign that the following word is an infinitive. Thus : — 

To die is to sleep, (dying is sleeping) 
I like to stay, (staying) 

[For the infinitive used without to, see §§ 563, 569.] 



INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT. 257 



B. USES, OR CONSTRUCTIONS. 

559. The two infinitives, each with its group of phrases, 
have similar meanings, bnt we shall see that sometimes 
they have different uses. 

560. I. Either infinitive may be used as Subject or 
Subjective Complement ; as, — 

To hesitate now is to be lost. Making promises is not keeping 
them. To have given freely is to be asked for more. His having 
once been crowned will make him noble. 

(a) An infinitive may be used as the real subject of a 
verb to explain the anticipative subject it (§ 303) ; as, — 
It is dangerous to trifle with temptation. 

EXERCISE 288. 

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the infinitives. 

Thus : — 

Making (promises) is [not] keeping (them). 

It is dangerous (to trifle with temptation). 

Making is a simple infinitive of the transitive verb "make, made, made," used as 
the subject of is. 

To trifle is a simple infinitive of the complete verb "trifle, trifled, trifled," used as 
the real subject of is to explain the anticipative subject it. 

1. To be good is to be happy. 2. Seeing is believing. 3. To 
relieve the wretched was his pride. 4, It is excellent to have a 
giant's strength. 5. Life is more than living for self. 6. To 
have been honest is not enough. 7. It is a crime to conceal a 
crime. 8. It is impossible not to grow old. 9. Reading by twi- 
light may injure the sight. 10. It is always best to tell the truth. 
11. It was discouraging not to have been kindly received. 12. Seem- 
ing good is not being good. 13. Will it not be easy to reject 
them? 



258 INFINITIVES. 

561. II. Either infinitive may be the Object of a verb ; 

as, — 

I enjoy swimming. I like to swim. I will swim. 
She prefers sitting quietly. She prefers to sit quietly. 

But there are many verbs that admit one infinitive and 
not the other as object ; and, without following any rule, 
we learn by practice which to use. Thus, we say, — 

" I desire to go now," not " I desire going now." 

" They finished reciting verses," not " finished to recite verses." 

" I cannot avoid crying," not " avoid to cry." 

" We have to go now," not " We have going now." 

562. Sometimes the infinitive is used as the object of a verb that 
has also an indirect object. Thus : — 

He taught [all his pupils] to sing, like — 

He taught singing [to all his pupils] ; 

in which one object names the persons who were taught, and the other 
the thing that was taught to them. Either one may be used as subject 
in the passive form [§ 452] ; as, — . 

All his pupils were taught [to sing], or — 

To sing was taught [to all his pupils]. 

563. After some verbs the infinitive is used as complement with- 
out the superfluous "to." [Compare § 569.] Thus: — 

(1) After the verbs do, may, can, must, shall, and generally will, whether they 
have their own proper meaning or only that of auxiliaries in making verb-phrases. [See 
§§ 428, 432, 446.] 

(2) Sometimes after dare and need. Thus : — 

She dared to meet them all. They dared not look up. 
It needs to be repaired. You need not go. 

(3) After had (a subjunctive of have) with the adjective expressions as lief, 
rather, better, best. Thus, in the sentences, — 

I had as lief die, I had rather go, 
the meaning is, " I should hold it as desirable or more desirable to die, to go." 

"You had better go" is copied from this expression, but the meaning of "had" is 
perverted. 



INFINITIVE AS OBJECT. 259 



EXERCISE 289. 



Analyze the following sentences, and parse the infinitives. 

Thus : — 

(Every) man should learn to govern (himself). 

He remembers having been associated (with Jackson). 

To govern is a simple infinitive, used as the object of should learn. 
Having been associated is a perfect passive infinitive, used as the object of remem- 
bers. 

1. Who would wish to be forgotten? 2. They refused to release 
the prisoner. 3. I have tried to do justice to everybody. 4. He 
dislikes being falsely accused. 5. The firm expects to be moving 
out to-morrow. 6. Do you regret having done no more? 7. Avoid 
speaking ill of your neighbor. 8. He promised me to go at once. 
9. Those who try deserve to be rewarded. 10. They dare not accuse 
him of dishonesty. 11. You need not tell me that story again. 

564. III. Either infinitive may be the Object of a 
preposition. Thns : — 

We are weary ivith watching those men. From having been 
king he came at last to being supported by charity. They were 
rewarded for never having been captured. The receiver was 
accused of having been taking bribes. We missed the perform- 
ance by being out walking. 

(a) The root-infinitive with " to " is now used only after the 
prepositions about and but. Thus : — 

The leader was about to drive off = about driving off. 

I am about to go = about going. 

He could do anything but make money ; that is, — . 

He understood everything but making money. 

EXERCISE 290. 

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the infinitives, 

Thus : — 

(Of making many books) there is (no) end. 

Malting is a simple transitive infinitive, used as the object of the preposition of, 



260 INFINITIVES. 

1. After visiting Paris, we returned to London. 2. Seven years 
were spent in securing our independence. 3. We could do nothing 
but fight. 4. He studied three years in Germany, after being gradu- 
ated at Harvard. 5. He was about to return to his native land. 
6. We can improve by imitating good examples. 7. Mary, after 
having been imprisoned nineteen years, was at last beheaded. 
8. They know nothing about its having been written. 9. They 
are pleased at having done it successfully. 10. He escaped his 
pursuers by assuming a disguise. 11. The dog did everything 
but speak to him. 

565. IV. The root-infinitive with to may be used 
Adjectively with a noun or a pronoun, like a preposi- 
tional phrase. In this use the preposition to generally 
resembles " for " in meaning. Thus : — 

Wood to burn, that is, for burning. 

Houses to let, that is, for letting. 

Work to be done, that is, for doing. 

The years to come, that is, about coming. 

(a) It is also often used as a predicate adjective, or 

subjective complement. Thus : — 

The house is to be sold (is for sale). 

This money is to give to the poor (is for charity). 

Such conduct is to be despised (is despicable). 

He appears to have lost his mind (appears insane). 

He was found to be in the right. 

They are supposed to have lost their way. 

EXERCISE 291. 

Analyze the following sentences, parse the infinitives, and give 
equivalent phrases when possible. Thus : — 

(The) question (to be decided) is (very) difficult. 

To be decided is a passive infinitive, used adjectively to modify the noun question. 
It is equivalent to "for decision." 

1. The prisoner found an opportunity to escape. 2. The question 



INFINITIVE AS ADVERB. 261 

is to be settled on its merits. 3. Have you time to hear my state- 
ment? 4. The company was to receive a thousand pounds. 5. Leaves 
have their time to fall. 6. Music hath charms to soothe the savage 
breast. 7. The Indians seem to be fading from the land. 8. He 
was found to be a Nihilist. 9. The story was thought to be false. 
10. There is no time to be lost. 

566. The infinitive in ing is also used adjectively in expressions like " the rising 
bell," that is, " the bell for rising." 

567. V. The root-infinitive with to, like a preposi- 
tional phrase, may be used Adverbially to modify the 
meaning of a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. In this 
use the preposition to often resembles " toward " or 
" for " ; so that the phrase denotes the object, purpose, 
cause, respect in ivhich, etc. Thus : — 

I urged him to stay (toward staying). 

We need the money to pay (for paying) the help. 

Strive to please. Help me (to) finish my work. 

They are sloiv to depart (in departing). 

He was quick to reply (at replying). 

It is ripe enough to eat (for eating). 

Time is too precious to be lost (for losing). 

EXERCISE 292. 

Select the infinitives, tell what each one modifies, and, if possible, 
use another prepositional phrase in its stead. Thus : — 
Come I [to speak in Caesar's funeral]. 

To speak is a simple infinitive, used adverbially to modify come. It is nearly, 
equivalent to "for speaking." 

1. I called to see him immediately. 2. My friends were delighted' 
to receive the gifts. 3. She is too sensible to be nattered. 4i They 
are well able to bear the loss. 5. Be swift to hear, and slow to speak. 
6. They died to defend their country's flag. 7. We are all striving 
to secure happiness. 8. The enemy were anxious to be moving south- 
ward, thoug v iithey were weak enough to be. easily conquered. 9. The 



262 INFINITIVES. 

waves mount up to kiss the blushing morn. 10. Hope comes with 
smiles, the hour of pain to cheer. 11. Perseverance will help to con- 
quer our difficulties. 12. The fire of the enemy forced us to retreat. 
13. The uncertainty of life should lead us to use it wisely. 14. I have 
explained it sufficiently to be understood. 

568. VI. The root-infinitive is often used along with 
the object of a verb as the Indirect Predicate of it, the 

object and the infinitive being nearly equivalent to an 
objective noun-clause. Thus : — 

We believed it to be true = We believed that it was true. 

I expected him to come = I expected that he would come. 

He asked me to stay = He asked that I should stay. 

Permit us to go = Permit that ice should go. 

I thought him to be rich = I thought that he was rich. 
[For " I thought him rich," " I thought him a man of means," see 
§ 348. For " I knew it to be him," see § 322.] 

Note. This construction is most common after verbs meaning think, perceive, 
declare, command, permit, and the like, taking the place of an indirect quotation. 
But the infinitive after these verbs may sometimes be explained in other ways. 

In "I believed him to be a liar," "him," though made objective because it follows 
" believed," is not meant to be separated from the following phrase. 

569. (a) After bid, let, make, see, hear, feel, and have an in- 
finitive is used as indirect predicate without to (compare § 563). As 

in,— 

B . d | him remain . Letj^o. 

( that he should remain. c that we should go. 

He m adej thet °P spin ; ,, . Isawj^ r 8°- 

( that the top should spin. ( that she went. 

w f ,, ( the house shake. Hear the bells ring. 

1 that the house shook. Have him copy this. 

570. The infinitive as indirect predicate is sometimes used with 
the object of a preposition. Thus : — 

He gave orders for me to go. It is time for the work to be done. 

571. The infinitive is sometimes used in elliptical constructions. Thus : — 

To tell the truth, I had quite forgotten you; instead of -» 
I must' say, in order to tell the truth, etc. 



INFINITIVE AS ABSTIIACT NOUN. 263 



EXERCISE 293. 

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the infinitives. Sug- 
gest an equivalent clause when possible. Thus : — 

I thought him to have been unjustly treated. 

To have been treated is a perfect passive infinitive used as the indirect predicate of 
him. " That he had heen unjustly treated " is an equivalent clause. 

1. They declared the child to be dying. 2. I imagined him to be 
listening. 3. I wished him to succeed. 4. We felt the ground sink. 

5. Allow the goods to be sent at once. 6. He has known them to 
remain until fall. 7. The law requires them to work but ten hours. 
8. The jury thought him to be guilty of the crime. 9. I found my 
friend to have been dead a month. 10. All men consider Washing- 
ton to have been a patriot. 11. I expected him to go at once. 12. No 
one believed him to be so cruel. 13. To speak plainly, we held it to 
be an outrage. 14. I suppose it to have been him. 15. We have 
ordered the house to be vacated immediately. 16. They forbade us 
to enter. 17. We shall have them go at once. 18. They made the 
welkin ring with their hurrahs. 

572. The infinitive in ing sometimes loses all its ver- 
bal uses, takes adjectives instead of adverbs as modifiers, 
and becomes merely an abstract noun (§ 184). Thus : — 

Infinitive. Taking human life > • -, . . -, 

J ■ ° ms homicide. 

Abstract Noun. The taking of human Me ) 

Infinitive. Walking rapidly > . g heaMful exercise> 

Abstract Noun. Rapid walking ) 

EXERCISE 294. 

Analyze the following sentences, parse the infinitives, and ex- 
plain how each is modified : — 

1. Strive to keep your appointments. 2. I have but a few 
more words to say. 3. Cease to do evil ; learn to do well. 4. The 
mere -fact of his father's paying the debt is no proof of its being a 
proper expenditure. 5. It was no easy task to bridge the chasm. 

6. To profess and to possess are very different. 7. A grove near by 



264 INFINITIVES. 

seemed to invite us to rest. 8. Let us prevent his anger by sacrific- 
ing ourselves. 9. The law is made to protect the innocent by punish- 
ing the guilty. 10. By observing truth we shall secure the respect 
of others. 11. He saw a star fall from heaven and vanish in utter 
darkness. 

12. Shall you have time to come to bid us farewell? 13. Those 
only are fit to rule who have learned to obey. 14. Men love to be 
adored, but hate to be reproved. 15. I have an engagement which 
prevents my staying longer with you. 1G. Their gratitude made 
them proclaim his goodness. 17. The atrocious crime of being a 
young man, I shall attempt neither to palliate nor deny. 18. Never 
leave it to do to-morrow if it ought to be done to-day. 19. I love to 
note the break of spring that is to clothe the ground. 20. Buying 
goods on credit has caused him to fail. 21. I saw them come, but did 
not hear them go. 22. To live soberly and righteously is to be his 
motto. 

23. I dare do all that may become a man ; 
Who dares do more is none. 

24. None knew thee but to love thee. 

25. Let not Ambition mock their useful toil. 

26. He, glad to hide his tell-tale cheek, 
Hied back that glove of mail to seek. 

27. Look in his face to meet thy neighbor's soul, 
Not on his garments to detect a hole. 

28. Sir Launfal flashed forth in his unscarred mail 
To seek in all lands for the holy grail. 

29. Oft has it been my lot to mark 

A proud, conceited, talking spark. 

30. There is never a blade or a leaf too mean 
To be some happy creature's palace. 

31. And fools who came to scoff remained to pray. 

32. The very leaves seem to sing on the trees. 

33. To be graduated with a college diploma without having entered 
into the true spirit of college life by bearing an active part in its 
manifold and stimulating experiences, is to have failed, of securing 
the best results of the course. 



ERRORS IN THE USE OF INFINITIVES. 265 

573. SUMMARY: FORMS FOR PARSING. 

Forms or Kinds. 



is a 



r Simple 

Simple \l ro ' 
^ I Pass. 

Perfect 

Perfect j Pl ' ' 
(. Pass. 



of fCom. 1 ( 

> Infinitive ; (or from) J Trail. > Verb -l 
(root- or in the [ Cop. J i. 

ing.) 



Constructions. 

1. Subject of the verb . 

(a) Explanatory of the anticipative subject it. 

2. Subjective complement of the verb . 

3. Object of the verb . 

4. Object of the preposition . 

* (to modify the noun . 

5. Used adjectively J ag sub j ective complement of the verb 

C verb . 

6. Used adverbially to modify the -< adjective . 

(_ adverb . 

7. Used as indirect predicate of the object . 



C. ERRORS IN THE USE OF INFINITIVES. 

574. A modifier must not be used between to and the rest 
of the infinitive. 

Say "They meant never to return" not "They meant to never 
return." 

575. Avoid using to alone in place of an infinitive. 

Say " He has broken his word and is likely to break it again," 

not " and is likely to again." 

" Po as I told you," not " Do as I told you to" 



266 PARTICIPLES. 

576. Avoid the use of "and" for to. 

Say " Come to see me," not " Come and see me " ; " Try to do your 
best," not " Try and do your best." 

577. Bo not use a perfect infinitive after a past tense 
when the simple form would express the meaning. 

Say " I intended to go," not "to have gone." 

" We hoped to be present" not " to have been present" 

" They expected to arrive yesterday," not " to have arrived." 

EXERCISE 295. 

Point out the error in each of these sentences, and tell what rule 
is violated : — 

1. We ought to carefully avoid errors. 

2. I have done every thing that you told me to. 

3. We shall try and call upon you next week. 

4. They had intended to have gone earlier. 

5. He tried to not roil the water. 

6. We were invited to go, but didn't wish to. 

7. I hoped to have met several friends here. 

8. They promised to eventually pay the debt, but they hoped to 
in some way escape. 

9. I have not paid the bill, nor do I intend to. 

10. I intended to have answered your letter more promptly. 

11. He was not obliged to have gone with me. 

12. I ought to at least apologize, but I do not mean to. 



II. PARTICIPLES. 
A. KINDS OR FORMS. 



578. Nearly every verb has two simple participles 
named from their meaning — 

(1) The Present, Imperfect, or Active participle ; as, — 
driving, spinning, seeing, walking, sleeping; and-r- 



KINDS OR FORMS. 267 

(2) The Past, Perfect, or Passive participle ; as, — 
driven, spun, seen, walked, slept. 

579. In place of inflected forms we have four partici- 
ple-phrases, — one formed with the imperfect participle, 
and three with the perfect. Thus : — 

Active. Passive. 

Imperfect. driving Perfect. driven 

Pres. Perf. having driven Pres. Perf. having been driven 

Progressive, having been driving Progressive, being driven 

580. The Present 1 participle always ends in ing*. It 
commonly represents an action or a condition as continu- 
ing or imperfect, and it is almost always active ; that is, it 
refers to the actor. Thus : — 

Vessels carrying coal are constantly arriving. 

581. Since the infinitive in ing and the present participle have 
the same form (§ 555), we must decide by the construction whether 
the word is an adjective or a noun. 

EXERCISE 296. 

Distinguish the infinitives (or verbal nouns) from the participles 
(or verbal adjectives) . 

1. At the beginning of summer, when the planting was finished, 
we found the farming population busy with haying. 2. Some were 
looking forward to the time of harvesting the growing crops. 3. Others 
were eagerly awaiting the time, when, leaving their homes, the little 
company would go to mining among the hills. 4. Having been prom- 
ised great wealth, they almost regretted having kept their farms so 

1 To the Teacher. — The names "present" and "past" are given only for con- 
venience, for the so-called past participle often denotes a present condition; as, "He 
is gone"; "They are kept for use"; "How are the mighty fallen"; "They were 
addressed hy one everywhere honored." And the actual time of either participle, of 
course, depends on that of the main verb; as in "The quantity of water remaining 
is, was, or will be lessened.' 1 * 



268 PARTICIPLES. 

long, and were annoyed at being compelled to remain upon them longer. 
5. But their expected fortunes never came. 

582. The Past participle commonly ends in en, ed, d, 
or t (§ 410), and is generally perfect, representing an 
action or a condition as completed. When used alone 
it is almost always passive ; that is, it refers, not to 
the actor, but to what is acted upon. Thus : — 

The army, beaten but not vanquished, slowly fell back. 
(a) When used in verb-phrases the past participle may 
be either active or passive. Thus : — 

The thief has broken the law. The law has been broken. 
(5) Participles of intransitive verbs of course are never 
passive. 

B. USES, OR CONSTRUCTIONS. 

583. The simple participles often lose their power 
to take complements and become merely descriptive or 
participial adjectives, — sometimes without much verbal 
meaning. [§ 330.] Thus : — 

rustling leaves ; a raging sea ; a brightly shining star ; 

lost moments ; an interesting book ; closely woven cloth ; 

the drifting snow ; the past year ; a newly baked loaf. 

These adjectives can easily be expanded into clauses. 

Thus : — 

rustling leaves = leaves that rustle. 

EXERCISE 297. 
Expand the adjectives in the preceding and in the following exam- 
ples to adjective clauses. 

1. A speaking likeness. 2. A sorely bereaved family. 3. Wounded 
soldiers. 4. A broken law. 5. .The breaking waves. 6. Finely spun 
glass. 7. A stubbornly fought battle. 8. Deeply hidden meaning. 
9. The living heroes. 10. The dancing sunbeams. 



USES, OR CONSTRUCTIONS. 269 

584. I. The simple participles are used as Subjective 
Complements, — 

(a) Of copulative verbs : as, — 

The flowers are gone. It seems bewildering. 

(6) Of verbs usually complete. In such cases the parti- 
ciple has some adverbial meaning ; as, — 

Night came stealing on. The place lay deserted for years. 

(<?) In forming verb-phrases (§§ 445, 450) ; as, — 
Lisbon was destroyed by an earthquake. It is shaking. 

585. The simple participles are sometimes used as Objective 
Complements ; as, — 

Send the ball rolling. We shall keep you occupied. 

EXERCISE 298. 
Analyze the following sentences, and parse the participles. 
Thus : — 

(The) engine sets (the) machinery (moving). 

Moving is the simple active participle of the complete verb " move, moved, moved "; 
it is used as objective complement of the verb sets, modifying machinery. 

1. The melancholy days are come. 2. I kept him working. 3. This 
noise is very confusing. 4. The mountain streams went babbling by. 
5. Is not the breeze from the hills refreshing? 6. The fire was set 
burning by sparks from the engine. 7. The news set all the bells 
ringing. 8. How the train goes thundering along ! 9. He lies 
wrapped in the flag he defended. 10. Her magnificent temples are 
turned into dust. 11. The children came rushing from the house, 
terrified and confused to hear such rumblings. 12. She stood enrap- 
tured at the sight while they lay sleeping. 13. My companions had 
kept me waiting, but I soon stood gazing from the summit. 14. I 
felt my pulse throbbing ; and soon the sun disappeared, shrouded in 
hazy vapors. 

586. II. Any participle may be added to a noun or a 
pronoun appositively. In such cases the idea would be 
more fully expressed, — 



270 "PARTICIPLES. 

(1) By an adjective clause ; as, — 

A farm \ s ^ in ^ to ^e south > ig ^ ^ 
( that slopes to the south ) 

The books \ h ° u % ht io l the , lib / al 'y ., I are burned. 

( that were bought for the library ) 

(2) By an adverb-clause denoting time, canse, etc. ; as, 

s > I heard a brown thrush sing. 

As I sat there ) 

The dog went home \ having lost his master ' 

t because he had lost his master. 

(3) By an independent statement; as, — 

Reaching for the bell-rope, > l ^ u vi j 

I reached tor the bell-rope, and ) 



EXERCISE 299. 

Analyze these sentences, and parse the participles. Change each 
participle-phrase to a clause that will give the meaning more ex- 
plicitly. Thus : — 

We took (the) path (leading to the summit). 

Leading is the simple active participle of the complete verb " lead, led, led," used to 
modify path. The adjective clause " which leads to the summit" may be substituted for 
the participle-phrase. 

1. We found some old planks badly rotted by the weather. 

2. The sun goes down, lengthening the shadows. 

3. What wonder is it that the girl, lost in such dreamy fancies, did 
not hear you ? 

4. Even the special train despatched at two did not arrive till four. 

5. Having often seen him passing, I reasoned that the nest was 
near. 

6. She brought some images stolen from the tombs by Arabs. 

7. Once possessed of that fortune, he would wish it to be greater. 

8. Punished or unpunished, he will never be conquered. 

9. Ten times conquered, still you may be victor. 

10. She had kept the flowers over night, making the bouquet in the 
morning. 



PARTICIPLES USED AS NOUNS. 271 

587. III. Any participle may be used with a noun or a 
pronoun in the Absolute construction (§ 231), the two 
together having the force of an adverb-clause. Thus : — 

\_Quiet having been restored], (the) speaker continued. 

(a) Sometimes the participle is used in this way without a nouu. Thus : — 
Speaking generally, this never happens. 

588. Participles used as Nouns. Participles, like 
other adjectives, are sometimes used alone and take the 
place of nouns. [Foot-note, page 195.] Thus : — 

The killed and the wounded. The living and the dying. 

EXERCISE 300. 

1. Analyze these sentences, and parse the participles. 

2. Expand the participle-phrases to clauses, and explain the pur- 
pose of each clause. Thus : — 

[The sea being rough], we were forced [to go by rail]. 

Being is the present participle of the copulative verb " be, was, been." Used ab- 
solutely with sea, it makes an adverb -phrase equivalent to the clause, " Because the sea 
was rough," and shows why we were forced to go by rail. 

1. The rain having ceased to fall, we look for a rainbow. 

2. The weather permitting, we shall set out to-morrow. 

3. And the rocks now slipping from beneath their feet, they still 
refused to flee. 

4. He had everything to fear from poisonous plants, the very sight 
of dogwood being dangerous. 

5. She sat by the window, the sash raised, and the wind blowing 
a gale. 

6. The army was in Belgium, the fleet being in the Channel, as 
we have said. 

589. Punctuation, Rule. — Participle -phrases must 
generally be set off by commas unless used restrictively. 

For examples, see sentences in preceding Exercises. 
[For errors in the use of participles, see § 464 and Exercises 89 and 
90, Part I.] 



272 PARTICIPLES. 



590. SUMMARY: FORMS FOR PARSING. 

Kinds or Forms. 

Imperfect 1 



is 
an 



Present Perf. V (Active) 
Progressive J 
Perfect "] 

Present Perf. V (Passive) 
Progressive J 



of fCom. i f — 

Part. ; (or from) { Tran. I Verb 1 — . 
the L ^°P- J I — 



Constructions. 

1. Modifies the noun (or pronoun) . 

2. Complement of the verb referring to . 

3. Used absolutely with the noun (or pronoun) . 

EXERCISE 301. 
Analyze the following sentences, and parse the participles and 
infinitives. Expand participle-phrases to clauses, and tell how the 
clauses affect the meaning of the main statement. 

1. The road, winding through a thick forest, leads to a park 
abounding in all kinds of game. 

2. Hast thou a charm to stay the morning star in his steep course? 

3. Taking my gun, I went to a neighboring wood to spend a few 
hours in recreation. 

4. The gates of the city having been thrown open, the army 
entered without opposition. 

5. This experience suggested to her the idea of writing a story 
describing life among the Indians. 

6. Other things being equal, there is nothing to hinder your 
becoming learned. 

7. In the morning early I called out my whole family to help at 
saving an after-growth of hay. 

8. Athens saw them entering her gates and filling her academies. 

9. The dinner-bell beginning to speak, I may as w T ell hold my 
peace. 

10. True politeness is the spirit of benevolence showing itself in a 
refined way. 



EXEKCISES. 273 

11. I hold Shakespeare to be the greatest poet that ever lived. 

12. " The heights by great men reached and kept 

Were not attained by sudden flight." 

13. To attempt to advise conceited people is like whistling against 
the wind. 

11. Evil falls on him who goes to seek it. 

15. Gone are the birds that were onr summer guests. 

16. His great work having been well done, he rests at last. 

17. He that is good at making excuses is seldom good for anything 
else. Let him learn the luxury of doing good. 

18. " True worth is in being, not seeming, 

In doing, each day that goes by, 
Some little good, not in dreaming 
Of great things to do by and by." 

19. It is well to think well ; it is divine to act well. 

20. England owes her liberties to her having been conquered by 
the Norman. 

21. Eyes raised towards heaven are always beautiful, whatever 
they be. 

22. There never has been a great and beautiful character which has 
not become so by filling well the ordinary and smaller offices appointed 
of God. Character is made up of small duties faithfully performed. 

23. There is no dearth of charity in the world in giving ; but there 
is comparatively little exercised in thinking and speaking. 

24. Selfishness is making one's self the most important personage 
in the world. Happiness shared is perfected. 

25. Silently to persevere in one's duty is the best answer to 
calumny. 

26. You find yourself refreshed by the presence of cheerful people. 
Why not make an earnest effort to confer that pleasure on others ? 

27. Freedom's battle, once begun, 
Bequeathed from bleeding sire to son, 
Though baffled oft, is ever won. 

28. Rest is not quitting the busy career ; 
Rest is the fitting of self to its sphere. 

'Tis loving and serving the highest and best ; 
'Tis onwards ! unswerving, and that is true rest. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

PHRASES, CLAUSES, AND COMBINED SENTENCES. 

REVIEW EXERCISE. 302. 

1. What are sentences? (§ 12.) 2. How are they divided with 
regard to kind? (§§16-19.) 3. How with regard to form ? (§§94, 
95, 305, 306.) 4. Define each kind. 5. What is a phrase? (§60.) 
6. Name and define several kinds of phrases. (§§ 88, 131, 146, 518 (a), 
519(a).) 7. What is a clause? (§ 273.) 8. Name and define the 
kinds of clauses. (§§ 274, 282, 495.) 9. Name the modifiers of nouns 
and pronouns. (§§ 151, 274, 565, 554.) 10. Name the modifiers of 
verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. (§§ 121 (b), 151, 494, 568, 584 (&).) 

591. The Base of a Sentence. The simple predicate 
is always a verb or verb-phrase. The subject, object, or 
subjective complement may be — 

1. A Noun : Napoleon overthrew the government, and became 
Emperor. 

2. A Pronoun : They released us. Debtors are those in debt. 

3. An Adjective, [as Subjective Complement only] : They are silent. 
Out of sight is out of mind. 
To be absent is to be forgotten. 
His keeping busy prevented his being homesick. 
They will be in search of work. 

{What I learn cannot be taken from me. 
We know that life is uncertain. 
The fact is that he is totally blind. 
[ "I still live " was the last that he said. 
A Quotation : -<J His dying words were, " Don't give up the ship." 
Galileo exclaimed, "It does move." 



4. A Phrase 



(a) The subject in imperative sentences is generally 
omitted. You, thou, or ye may be supplied in analyzing. 



COMPOUND ELEMENTS. 275 

592. Modifiers. Besides the modifiers named in § 151, 

1. A noun or a pronoun may be modified by — 

1 . p . . , ( -word : They found him wounded and dying. 
\ phrase : Some frail memorial, still erected nigh. 

2. An Infinitive-phrase : A plan to light the streets cheaply. 

3. An Adjective clause : Those that think govern those that toil. 

4. An Appositive Noun-clause : Prove the fact \ that it is so. 

5. An Explanatory Noun-clause : It is true that air has weight. 

593. II. A verb, infinitive, participle, adjectiv-e, or ad- 
verb may be modified by — 

f word : Let the prisoner go. 
1. An Infinitive < r>hrase • 1 ^ e came to demand our rights. 
[ ( The land is pleasant to live 



in. 



2. An Adverb-clause : Stand wherever you like. 



594. Compound Elements. Any element in a sen- 
tence, whether a part of the base or a modifier, may be 
compounded, of two or more simple elements usually 
joined by conjunctions. Thus : — 

In Him we live and move. He is both wise and good. 
Speak firmly but kindly. Learn who he is and where he is. 

EXERCISE 303. 

Analyze these sentences, and show which elements of each sen- 
tence are compound : — 

1. There health and plenty cheered the laboring swain. 2. Regular 
and daily exercise was the origin and secret of his health. 3. Gayly 
rode the hunters through the valleys or over the hills. 4. Love for 
study, a desire to do right, and care in the choice of friends were 
traits of his character. 5. We were deeply impressed by the majesty 
and sublimity of the cataract and its surroundings. 6. Which would 
they choose, to live at peace with none, or to die at peace with all? 

7. Either sooner or later temperance fortifies and purifies the heart. 

8. Make the house where gods may dwell, beautiful, entire, and clean. 



276 



PHRASES, CLAUSES, ETC. 



595. Clauses. The different kinds of clauses must be 
carefully distinguished, and their connection with the rest 
of the sentence indicated clearly. The following forms 
may be used : — 

- is an Adjective clause (ajc) modifying the noun (or 
pronoun) . 

1. The relative pronoun who, which, 
that, as. 

2. The conjunctive adverbs where, 
when, whence, why, etc. 



III. 



The clause-connective is 



IT. 1 



is an Adverb-clause (avc) modifying the verb (adj. or 

adv.) by denoting time, place, cause, manner, compari- 
son, condition, concession, purpose, etc. 

f 1. The conj. adv. where, when, while, 

™, , . . whence, as, etc. 

Ine clause-connective is \ . . 

2. The sub. conj. till, before, after, if 

[ for, because, as, than, that, etc. 

1. As subject Of the verb . 

2. As object of the verb . 

3. As object of the prep. . 

4. As subjective complement of . 

5. In apposition with the noun . 

6. To explain the anticipative subject 
(or object) it. 

' 1. The conj. pro. what, ivhatever, who- 
ever, etc. 

2. The conj. adv. how, why, when, 
where, etc. 

3. The sub. conj. ihat or whether. 



is a 

Noun-clause (nc) ; 
used 



The clause-connective is 



596. In studying selections for analysis and parsing, 
observe the following directions : — 

1. Consult the dictionary for the meaning of unfamiliar words. 

2. Transpose the words into their common prose order, unless the 
construction seems clear to you. 



EXEKCISES. 277 

3. Select the clauses and show how each is used. 

4. Classify the sentence and analyze each part of it. 

EXERCISE 304. 

1. Classify the clauses in these sentences, and show, according 
to the preceding forms, how each is used. 

2. Parse the clause-connectives. 

1. We acquire the strength that we overcome. 2. O Solitude! 
where are the charms that sages have seen in thy face? 3. Life is 
what we make it. 4. Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty. 
5. What pleases you will please me. 6. The fact is that he has 
betrayed my confidence. 7. He knew not that the chieftain lay 
unconscious of his son. 8. It is in vain that you seek to escape. 

9. While he slept the enemy came. 10. What he spake, though 
it lacked form a little, was not madness. 11. All that he does is to 
distribute what others produce. 12. He that fights and runs away 
may live to fight another day. 13. The best of what we do and are 
is poor enough. 14. I thank God that I never hated any man because 
he was poor or because he was ignorant. 15. A great many men, if 
put into the right position, would be Luthers or Columbuses. 16. No 
wonder you are deaf to all I say. 17. He whistled as he went, for 
want of thought. 18. Nothing waxethold sooner than a good turn 
or a favor. 19. When faith is lost, when honor dies, the man is dead. 
20. Be silent, or say something better than silence. 21. Patience is 
so like Fortitude, that she seems either her sister or her daughter. 

22. His misery was such that none of his friends could refrain 
from weeping. 23. What stronger breastplate than a heart untainted? 
24. Thrice is he armed who hath his quarrel just ; and he but naked, 
though locked up in steel, whose conscience with injustice is cor- 
rupted. 25. Still the wonder grew that one small head could carry 
all he knew. 26. When Strength and Justice are true yoke-fellows, 
where can be found a mightier pair than they? 27. You will gain a 
good reputation, if you endeavor to be what you desire to appear. 
28. He made it clear that the plan was impossible. 29. He felt as 
though himself were he on whose sole arm hung victory. 
30. Whoever thinks a faultless piece to see, 

Thinks what ne'er was, nor is, nor e'er shall be. 



278 PHRASES, CLAUSES, ETC, 

EXERCISE 305. 
Analyze the following sentences, classifying the clauses, and 
parsing the words : — 

I. To dare is great, but to bear is greater. 2. Write it on your 
heart that every day is the best day of the year. 3. Heaven is for 
those who think of it. 4. Live as though life were earnest, and life 
will be so. 5. Sweet it is to have done the thing one ought. 6. He 
that loveth makes his own the grandeur that he loves. 7. " Don't 
cross the bridge till you come to it " is a proverb old and of excellent 
wit. 8. There's nothing so contagious as pure openness of heart. 
9. Who does the best his circumstance allows, does well, acts nobly ; 
angels could do no more. 10. He is not worthy of the honeycomb 
that shuns the hives because the bees have stings. 

II. Find thou always time to say some earnest word between the 
idle talk. 12. Duties are ours, but events are God's. 13. Brooding 
all day will not arm a man against misery. 14. Nothing that is shall 
perish utterly. 15. There's nothing but what's bearable as long as a 
man can work. 16. It is better to fight for the good than to rail at 
the ill. 17. Love all, trust a few, do wrong to none. 18. Corn grow- 
ing, larks singing, garden full of flowers, fresh air on the sea — O, it 
is wonderful ! 19. We always may be what we might have been. 
20. It isn't so much what a man has that makes him happy, as it is 
what he doesn't want. 

21. We are made happy by what we are, not by what we have. 

22. A man's reach should exceed his grasp, or what's heaven for? 

23. It's very easy finding reasons why other folks should be patient. 

24. Who laughs at crooked men needs walk very straight. 25. We 
are such stuff as dreams are made of, and our little life is rounded 
with a sleep. 26. He who neglects the present moment throws away 
all he has. 27. " One soweth and another reapeth " is a verity that 
applies to evil as well as good. 28. Rich gifts wax poor when givers 
prove unkind. 29. Said he, " All that I am, my mother made me." 
30. Since my country calls me, I obey. 31. The days are made on a 
loom whereof the warp and woof are past and future time. 32. Let 
me make the songs of a people, and I care not who makes the laws. 

33. Words pass as wind, but where great deeds were done 
A power abides, transfused from sire to son. 



EXERCISES, 279 



Selections for Analysis and Parsing. 1 

1. Attention is the stuff that memory is made of, and memory is 
accumulated genius. 

2. Wise sayings often fall on barren ground ; but a kind word is 
never thrown away. 

3. A great writer has said that grace is beauty in action : I say 
that justice is truth in action. 

4. How easy it is for one benevolent being to diffuse pleasure 
around him ; and how truly is a kind heart a fountain of gladness, 
making everything in its vicinity freshen into smiles. 

5. If we do not plant knowledge when young, it will give us no 
shade when we are old. 

6. To know by rote is no knowledge ; it is only a retention of what 
is intrusted to the memory. What a man truly knows may be dis- 
posed of without regard to the author, or reference to the book 
whence he had it. 

7. Alexander the Great, reflecting on his friends' degenerating into 
sloth and luxury, told them that it was a most slavish thing to 
luxuriate, and a most royal thing to labor. 

8. Oh, what a glory doth this world put on for him who, with a 
fervent heart, goes forth under the bright and glorious sky ! 

9. Few men learn the highest use of books. After life-long study 
many a man discovers too late that to have had the philosopher's 
stone availed nothing without the philosopher to use -it. 

10. If the poor and humble toil that we may have food, must not 
the high and glorious toil for him in return, that he have light, guid- 
ance, freedom, immortality. 

11. Words are the leaves of the tree of knowledge, of which, if 
some fall awaj~, a new succession takes their place. 

12. The busy world shoves angrily aside 

The man who stands with arms akimbo set, 
Until the occasion tells him what to do ; 
And he who waits to have his task marked out 
Shall die and leave his errand unfulfilled. 

1 To the Teacher. — Other sentences for analysis and parsing may be found in Part I., 
pages 8-10; 20-22; 24-29; 104-108. All school readers of course furnish abundant and 
varied material for practice. 



280 PHEASES, CLAUSES, ETC. 

13. Failure after long perseverance is much grander than never to 
have a striving good enough to be called a failure. 

14. When the Breton sailor puts to sea, his prayer is, "Keep me, 
my God, for my boat is so small and Thy ocean is so wide." 

15. 'Tis greatly wise to talk with our past hours, 
And ask them what report they bore to heaven. 

16. The happiest man is he who, being above the troubles which 
money brings, has his hands the fullest of work. 

17. It is seldom that we find how great a man is until he dies. 

18. Nine times out of ten, the best thing that can happen to a 
young man is to be tossed overboard and compelled to sink or swim 
for himself. In all my acquaintance I never knew a man to be 
drowned who was worth the saving. 

19. If the way in which men express their thoughts is slipshod 
and mean, it will be very difficult for their thoughts themselves to 
escape being the same. 

20. Learn from the earliest days to inure your principles against 
the perils of ridicule ; you can no more exercise your reason, if you 
live in the constant dread of laughter, than you can enjoy your life 
if you are in the constant terror of death. 

21. Toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing, onward through life he goes ; 
Each morning sees some task begin, each evening sees its close; 
Something attempted, something done, has earned a night's 

repose. 

22. For manhood is the one immortal thing 

Beneath Time's changeful sky, 
And, where it lightened once, from age to age, 
Men come to learn, in grateful pilgrimage, 

That length of days is knowing when to die. 

23. Press on ! surmount the rocky steeps ; 

Climb boldly o'er the torrent's arch : 
He fails alone who feebly creeps ; 

He wins who dares the hero's march. 
Be thou a hero ! let thy might 

Tramp on eternal snows its way, 
And through the ebon walls of night, 

Hew down a passage unto day. 



EXERCISES. 281 



Faulty Sentences for Correction. 

1. It don't make any difference whether he go or stay. § 477. 

2. I begun at once to follow his advice. § 464. 

3. .No sound but that of their own voices were heard. § 477. 

4. The army were led into the defile. § 481. 

5. Somebody told me, but I forget whom. § 318. 

6. Each plant and tree produce others of their kind. §§ 313, 483. 

7. He will receive his father and brother's property. § 217. 

8. Love of drink is of all other habits the most dangerous. § 365. 

9. I met a woman whom I supposed to be she. § 322. 

10. Not a person dared raise their voice against it. § 312. 

11. This man with his sons were founders of a nation. § 477. 

12. Who should I meet but an old classmate. § 319. 

13. This is the same matter which I spoke of. § 323. 

14. He is one of the wisest men that has ever lived. § 477. 

15. Whom do people say that he is? § 318. 

16. I do not think the court right in their verdict. § 316. 

17. We soon found the spot in which the treasure laid. § 466. 

18. Return before it (is, be) too late. § 474. 

19. Who none but you and I shall hear. § 319. 

20. He conies ; nor want nor cold his course delay. § 484. 

21. His wealth and not his talents attract attention. § 487. 

22. I do not know whether he is there now or no. § 366. 

23. I would like to know whose book this is. § 472. 

24. He did no more than it was his duty to have done. § 577. 

25. Neither of them are better than they ought to be. §§ 312, 477. 

26. There were no less than a thousand lost. Pt. I. § 93. 

27. Will we forget the deeds of these heroes ? § 471. 

28. I do not doubt but that I shall see him to-morrow. § 545. 

29. A certain person that I could name if it was necessary. § 475= 

30. There is sometimes more than one auxiliary to a verb. § 477. 

31. Neither men or money (was, were) wanting. §§ 485, 545. 

32. Sense, not riches, win esteem. § 487. 

33. We will soon be able to answer the question. §469. 

34. This long task of ours is now most done. Pt. I. § 93. 

35. I do not know whom you profess to be. § 318. 



282 PHUASES, CLAUSES, ETC. 

36. What signifies promises without performance? §477. 

37. The angles of this triangle are equal to each other. § 326. 

38. These are the officers which I have chosen. § 323. 

39. I intended to have written on the subject. § 577. 

40. That is a remarkable large trout you have. § 366. 

41. If he know the way he needs no guide. § 475 (a). 

42. Would that my brother was here. § 475. 

43. Nothing but a few ruins remain to mark the spot. § 477. 

44. This construction sounds rather harshly. § 513. 

45. Such a man as him would never say so. § 318. 

46. Try and do what you can to make others happy. § 576. 

47. If the boat had have come, we should have went. §§ 439, 464. 

48. If I had done it I (would, should) apologize. § 469. 

49. It is doubtful if the people are aware of this. § 545. 

50. They had very different plans than those I suggested. § 525. 

51. This is the Merchants' and Traders' Bank. § 217. 

52. I would like to call your attention to this. § 472. 

53. This picture will look very differently in another light. § 513. 

54. Not an European was present. § 357. 

55. In reading you should sit as uprightly as possible. § 513. 

56. He had a large and a finely-shaped head. § 358. 

57. Do you think these kind of amusements harmless ? § 359. 

58. This blunder is actually said to have occurred. Pt. I. § 95. 

59. This we will have occasion to use hereafter. § 469. 

60. The rise and fall of nations are an interesting study. § 483. 

61. Which is the largest, the antecedent or the consequent? § 364. 

62. Every thought and feeling are opposed to it. § 483. 

63. Ain't that gent with specs on him ? Yes, thanks. Pt. I. § 89. 

64. It must be very pleasant to travel like he does. § 545. 

65. He thought himself quite a scholar. Pt. I. § 93. 

66. I meant to have written to you last week. § 577. 

67. I do not wish for any help yet. § 526. 

68. I won't have time to see him to-morrow. § 469. 

69. There is a misunderstanding between him and I. § 319. 

70. Time and chance happeneth to all men. § 477. 

71. He ought to have learned you better. Pt. I. § 92. 

72. A nation has no right to violate their treaties. § 316. 

73. Hadn't we ought to invert the divisor ? Pt. I. § 90. 



INDEX. 



[The numbers refer to sections. For Part I see the Table of Contents.] 



A or an, 332, I b; use, 357-8. 

a-, prefix, 510 (2). 

A few, etc.. construction, 360. 

Abbreviations for analysis and parsing, 157, 
307; adjectives, 351; adverbs, 509; com- 
plex sentences, 307; nouns, 244, 264; pro- 
nouns, 310; verbs, 460. 

Abbreviated expressions, 547-50. 

Absolute construction, 231-2, 587. 

Abstract nouns, 185, 572; derivation, 247 c, 
249. 

Active voice, 448, 452. 

Active participle, 578, 580. 

Adjectives, 62-72, 327-66; kinds, 65, etc., 
332, 353; compound, 354; conjunctive, 
332, IV; descriptive, 327-30; interroga- 
tive, 332, III; limiting, 66, etc., 331-2; 
numeral, 332, II; participial, 330, 583; 
possessive, 294 6; predicate, 65, 1; 71,2, 
346; proper, 330; verbal. 402-4, 408-12. 
Comparison, 333-42, 362; substitute for, 
339; adjs. not compared, 340, 342, 362; 
derivation, 354; — number, 343. 

Constructions, 65, 71, 128, 344-9; apposi- 
tive, 345; attributive, 345; complement, 
subjective, 346, objective, 347-8; inde- 
pendent, 548 (3) ; as other parts of speech, 
349; as adverbs, 511a; as nouns, 254-7; 
as pronouns, 285; — modifiers of, 151, 
593; — parsing, 350-51, 353; — position, 
160; — errors in form, 357-65; — in use, 
366, 512;— summary, 353. 

Adjective clause, 272, 274, 491-2; construc- 
tion, 595 (1). 

Adjective phrase, 131, 360, 518 a. 

Adjective pronouns, 285-88, 302 a. 

Adverbs, 73-79, 489-515; kinds, 483-502, 
509; conjunctive, 490-96; interrogative, 
498; modal, 499; responsives, 500; sim- 
ple, 490, 497. 
Comparison, 503-4; — derivation, 510. 
Constructions, 73-9, 129, 505, 509; mod- 
ify what, 505; independent, 548 (4); as 
other parts of speech, 506; as adjectives, 
356; like pred. adjective, 375; as con- 
junctions, 530 a; as nouns, 258; — modi- 



fiers of, 151, 593; —parsing, 507-9; — 
position, 515; — errors in use, etc., 512-15; 
— summary, 590. 

Adverb-clause, 495, 537; construction, 
595 (2). 

Adverb-phrase, 131, 519 a. 

Agreement, 401; adjectives, 359; verbs, 
476-88. 

Analysis, 152-60, 456; general directions, 
239,596; abbreviations, 157; models, 154, 
155, 157; complex sentence, 305-7, 507; 
verb-phrase, 458-9. 

And for to, 576. 

Antecedents, 276; agreement, 312; collec- 
tive, 316; connected, 313-14. 

Anticipative subject, 303, 560 a. 

Apostrophe, 207; misused, 302 b. 

Appositive, 142-4; adjective, 345 b; after or 
and as, 221 a; case of, 320; noun or pro- 
noun, 221; participle, 586; phrase, 146-8. 

Appositive adjective clause, 324. 

Arrangement, see Order. 

Articles, 332, I; form, 357; repeated, 388. 

As, conjunction, 537; conj. adverb, p. 250; 
relative pronoun, 278; with appositive, 
221 a. 

Assertive sentence, 16, 23. 

Attributive adjective, 345 a. 

Auxiliaries, 426-7, 57; be, 444-5; do, 446-7; 
have, 438-43; may, can, must, 432-7; 
shall, will, 428-31, choice between, 468- 
72; should, 436, 472; with infinitive, 563; 
meaning of, 428, 432-6. 

Base of sentence, 123-5, 591. 

Be, complete or copulative, 374. 

Capitals, 21-22, 168; Pt. I, p. 11. 

Case, 293; nouns, 205-8; possessive, 138-41; 
pronouns, 2.31-6; wrong forms, 317-22. 

Clause, def., 273 ; kinds, 595 ; adjective, 274, 
491-2; appositive and restrictive, 324; ad- 
verb, 494-5, 535-9 ; noun, 279, 281, 493, 538. 
Constructions, 595; as modifier, 592-3; 
as part of base, 591. 

Clause connective, 275, 491, 536. 

Collective nouns, 177-8; as antecedents, 
316; as subjects, 479-81. 



284 



INDEX, 



Comparison, 335; adjectives, 333-42; ad- 
verbs, 502-3; errors in, 362-4; irregular, 
337, 503 a. 

Complement, 120-22, 121 6, 107-18; of inf. 
and part., 346 a; objective, 233-6, 347-8, 
585; subjective, 212, 584; in passive 
phrase, 348, note; 562; case of, 317; after 
to be, 322; inf. as, 560-64. 

Complete verbs, 118-19. 

Complex sentence, 305; analysis, 307; 
punctuation, 325, 543. 

Compound adjective, 354. 

Compound elements, 594. 

Compound nouns, derivation, 251-2; gen- 
der, 174; plural, 199; possessive, 207, 
note 3. 

Compound sentence, 90-95, 529, 591-6; 
analysis, 154; punctuation, 534. 

Compound verbs, 461. 

Compound complex sentence, 306. 

Conjugation, 413, etc. 

Conjugation tables, p. 211-12; be, 416. 

Conjunctions, 90-99, 527-45; auxiliary, 533, 
note; co-ordinating, 528-32; correlative, 
533; subordinating, 535-9. 

Use, 90, etc., 106, 544; compound ele- 
ments, 97, 594; as adverb, 511 b ;— parsing, 
541-2 ; — errors, 545 ; — summary, 544. 

Conjunctive adjective, 332, IV; adverb, 
490-96 ; pronouns, 275-8. 

Connectives, 527, 595. 

Construction, absolute, 231-2, 587; adjec- 
tives, 344-9; adverbs, 505-9; clauses, 595; 
conjunctions, 544; elliptical, 571, 587 a; 
independent, 230, 548-50, 587 a; infini- 
tive, 559-71, 573; interjection, 546, 549; 
nouns, 210-36, 264; participles, 583-8; 
phrases, 518-20; prepositions, 517, 523; 
pronouns, 299-304; verbs, 460. 

Contractions, 58. 

Copulative verb, 108-12, 120, 371-75. 

Correlatives, 533. 

Dare, 400, 563(3). 

Declension, 294. 

Demonstrative, adjective, 332, VI; pronoun, 
287. 

Derivation, 245-6; adverbs, 510; adjectives 
354; proper adj., 330; compounds, 251-2 
nouns, 247-52, 547, IV; feminines, 171-4 
proper names, 145; prefixes and suffixes, 
248; verbs, 461; 547, IV. 

Descriptive adjective, 62-4, 69, 71; 327-30. 

Dialects, 5 a. 

Diminutives, 247 a. 

Distributive, adjective, 332, VII; pronoun, 
287. 

Each other, misused, 326. 

Elements, compound, 97, 592 (2), 594; inde- 
pendent, 230 ; order, 158, etc. 

Elliptical construction, 549, 571, 587 a. 

Emphatic verb-phrase, 446-7, p. 215. 

Errors, 5a; adjectives, 357-66; adverbs, 
512-15; infinitives, 574-7; conjunctions, 
545; miscellaneous, p. 281-2; possessives, 
216-19; prepositions, 525-6; pronouns, 
312-26, 278, 302 6; verbs, 462-88. 



Essential subject and predicate, 38-41, 56, 
62, 123, 126, 370. 

Exclamation, 19, 20, 25; words used in, 
230 (2), 546-51. 

Expansion , of words, 218, 583; of phrases, 586. 

Expletive, 159, 303, 502. 

False syntax, see Errors. 

Feminine nouns, 170-5; derivation, 247 6; 
pronouns, 297. 

Future tense, 428-31. 

Future perfect tense, 440. 

Gender-nouns, 169-76; common, 175; 
pronouns, 297-8. 

Gerund, p. 195, note. 

Grammar, def., 7, 8. 

Had better, 563 (3). 

Imperative sentence, 23, 78; mood, 392; 
subject omitted, 395, 591a. 

Imperfect participle, 409, 578, 580. 

Incomplete verbs, 107, 370-2. 

Independent construction, 230, 548-50, 587 a. 

Indicative, 393, 395-6. 

Indirect object, 222-6, 562. 

Indirect predicate, 568-70, 348 ; case after ,322. 

Infinitive, 403-7, 552, 555-77; kinds, 406, 
555; with to, 557-S; without to, 563, 569; 
with for, 570. 

Constructions, 559-73; as abstract noun, 
572; as adjective, 565-6; as adverb, 567; 
as indirect predicate, 568-70; as object, 
561-4; as object of prep., 570; as subject, 
560; as predicate adj., 5.55 a; in elliptical 
constructions, 571; with anticipative it, 
560 a; with predicate adjective, 346 a; 
with object, 404 (1) ; — modifiers of, 593 ; 
— parsing, 573; — errors, 574-7; confused 
with participle, p. 195, note; — summary, 
573. 

Infinitive phrases, 556. 

Inflection, 136, etc., 186, etc. ; adjective, 333- 
43; adverb, 503-4; noun, 186, etc.; pro- 
noun, 289-97; verb, 379, etc. 

Interjections, 100-5; 16; 546-51; kinds, 547; 
responsives, 500 ; uses, 100-4, 106. 

Interrogative, adjective, 332, III ; adverb, 498. 
Pronoun, 270-1; antecedent, 300; con- 
structions, 299-300. 

Interrogative sentence, 7, 447; order, 159 b; 
punctuation, 24. 

Intransitive verbs, 372; as transitive, 377; 
made passive, 453. 

Inverted order, 158, etc. ; with there, 502. 

Irregular comparison, 337, 503 a; plurals, 
191-7. 

Irregular verbs, 419-23; conjugation, 416, 
418. 

It, anticipative subject, 303, 159 end, 560 a; 
used indefinitely, 304. 

Language, kinds, 16, 5; study of, 4; use 
of, 1. 

Letters, figures, etc., as nouns, 262; plural, 
190. 

Limiting adjective, 66-70; 331-2; as pro- 
noun, 285-8. 

Marking for analysis, p. 79-80, foot-note; 
156, 307, Ex. 179. 



INDEX. 



285 



Masculine, nouns, 170-5; pronouns, 297. 

Mass-nouns, 179-81. 

Modifiers, 127-51, 592-3; of verbals, 404; 
primary and secondary, 135 a; inverted 
order, 160. 

Members of sentence, 95. 

Mood, 390-97. 

Need, 400, 563 (3). 

Negative sentence, 447. 

Negatives, errors in use, 514. 

Nominative, 292;. use, 317, 321. 

Nouns, 42, 44-8, 161-264; def., 46; kinds, 45, 
161-85, 264; abstract, 182-5, 572; deriva- 
tive, 247 c, 249, kinds, 184, meaning, 182- 
3; collective, 177-8; common, 162, etc., 
meaning, 164; compound, 252; diminu- 
tives, 247 a; gender, 169-76; feminine, 
derivation, 247 b; material, 179-8S; proper, 
161-8, meaning, 164; verbal, 402-7, 412. 

Forms or inflection, 264; case, 205-9; 
possessive, 206-7; number, 187-204, pecu- 
liarities of, 201-4; plural, rules for, 189- 
200, of compounds, 199, of foreign words, 
200. 

Constructions or uses, 210-36, 264, 106, 
47; as adjective, 355; adverbially, 149, 
227-9; as appositive, 142, etc., 221; as 
complement, 111; as objective comple- 
ment, 233-6; as subjective complement, 
212; independently, 230, 548 (1); as indi- 
rect object, 222-6; as possessive, 138-41, 
215; as object of prep., 214, of verb, 213; 
as subject, 211; with participle, 231-2, 587 ; 
modifiers of, 151, 592; — noun omitted, 
257; — parsing, 242-4; — summary, 264. 

Xoun-clause, 279-82; connective, 280, 493, 
538; construction, 595(3); equivalents, 
568-70. 

Noun-phrases, as adverbs, 149-50, 228; pos- 
sessive of, 207, note 3. 

Number, nouns, 187-204, 136; adjectives, 
343; pronouns, 289-90; errors, 312-16; 
proper nouns, 198; special rules, 191-7; 
verbs, 398-401; errors, 477-88. 

Numerals, 333, II. 

Objective pronouns, 291-3. 

Objective complement, 233-6, 347-8, 378; 
participle as, 585. 

Object of verbs, 117, 121,213; of inf., 404 
(1) ; of part., 404 (2) ; of preposition, 87, 
517; direct, indirect, 223; in passive, 452, 
226; infinitive as object with indirect 
predicate, 561-4; wrong case-form, 319. 

One another, misused, 326. 

Other, misused, 365. 

Order of words, inverted, 158, etc. ; wrong, 

Ft. I, 95; adverbial expressions, 515; prep, 
and object, 517 a; questions, 300, 395; 
there, 502 ; to, 574. 

Parsing, 237-41, 596; see Abbreviations; 
adjectives, 350-51; adverbs, 507-9; con- 
junctions, 541-2; infinitives, 573; nouns, 
242-4; order, 240; participle, 590; prep- 
ositions, 523-5; pronouns, 308-9; verbs, 
455-60. 

Participial adjective, 330, 583. 



Participles, 408-11; 578-90; imperfect, 409; 
perfect, 410. 

Constructions, 583-8 ; absolutely, 231-2 ; 
as adjectives, 583; as adverb, 584, b; as 
appositive, 586; as noun, 588; equivalent 
to clause, 586; in perfect phrase, 438-43; 
with complement, 346 a; — confused with 
infinitives, p. 195, note, 581; — meaning, 
554, note;— modifiers, 404 (2), 593; — pars- 
ing, 590; — suffix, 580, 582; — summary, 
590. 

Participle-phrase, 231, 232, 579. 

Parts of speech, 106; decided by use, 61. 

Passive participle, 578, 582. 

Passive phrase, 448-53; formation, 450; 
from intransitives, 453 ; with complement, 
212; when used, 452 a. 

Past perfect, 439. 

Past tense, 385; formation, 387; misused, 
464; past subjunctive, 475. 

Perfect infinitive for present, 577. 

Perfectparticiple,410, 578, 582; misused, 464. 

Perfect tense phrases, 438-43. 

Person, of pronouns, 266-9; of verbs, 398- 
401, 485, 488. 

Personification, 298. 

Phrases, 57, 60, 14, 80-1; emphatic, 446-7 ; 
infinitive, 556; participle. 579; passive, 
448-53; perfect, 438-43; possessive, 146; 
prepositional, 518-20 ; progressive, 444-5 ; 
verb, 424-54. 

As adjectives and adverbs, 130, etc., 
518-9; as appositives, 146-7; as nouns, 
261; equivalent to clause, 232; independ- 
ent, 548 (4) ; as part of base, 591 (4) ; as 
subjective complement. 
Analysis, 155, 451-9. 

Phrase-adverbs, 501. 

Phrase-conjunctions, 540. 

Phrase-prepositions, 521. 

Plural, 136-7, 188; of name with title, 165. 

Position of words, see Order. 

Possessive, 141; as adjective, 138, etc., 294 6, 
332,V; connected nouns, 216-7; formation 
of, 207, 140; meaning, 208-9; nouns, 215; 
phrase, 146; phrase preferred, 208, 218-9, 
296; pronouns, 294-5, double form, 301-2; 
with modifiers, 147; without noun, 220. 

Potential forms, 432-7. 

Predicate, 30-3; essential, 40-1; indirect, 
568-70; modified, 37, 41, 63. 

Predicate-adjective, 65, 1; 71, 2; infinitive 
as, 565 a; construction, 346 * like adverbs, 
375. 

Predicate-noun, 110-1; construction, 212. 

Prefixes, 248, 510 (2). 

Preposition, 80-89, 516-26; use, 83-4, 106, 
527 (3) ; after its object, 517 a; as adverb, 
522,5116; as conjunction, 522; combined 
with verb, 453; independent, 548 (4); 
with infinitive, 564; — parsing, 523-4; — 
errors, 525-6. 

Prepositional phrase, 80-1, 518-20 ; use, 133; 
as adjective, 84, 518; as adverb, 83, 89, 
519; infinitive as, 565; fcr possessive, 
208, 218-19, 296; with modifiers, 134-5. 



286 



INDEX. 



Present perfect, 438. 

Present participle, 578} 980. 

Present tense, 382-4; potential, 433* sub- 
junctive, 474. 

Principal parts, 421; list, 423; of auxiliaries, 
427; alike, 388; confused, 4G3-4. 

Progressive verb-phrase, 444-5. 

Proper, adjective, 330; as noun, 255; — nouns, 
162-8, derivation, 145, plural. 

Pronouns, 49-54, 265-326; kinds, 266-288, 
310; adjective, 285-8; appositive, 221; 
conjunctive, 272-84; compound personal, 
268; demonstrative, 287 ; distributive, 287; 
interrogative, 270-1, 52, as connective, 
284 b, antecedent of, 271, 300; personal, 
266-9; possessive, 138-41,301-2; relative, 
275-278, meaning, 278. 

Forms or inflection, 310; agreement, 
312; with collective antecedent, 316; with 
connected antecedents, 312-16; case, 291- 
6, of appositive, 320; independent, or 
with participle, 321; gender, 297-8, 315; 
number, 289-90. 

Constructions, 299-304, 264; as adjec- 
tives,' 301-2; with participle, 321, 587; 
choice of, 323-6; —meaning, 49-54, 265; 
modifiers, 151, 592; — parsing, 308-9; — 
errors in use of, 312-26, 302 b ; wrong case- 
forms, 317-22, as subject, 318, as object, 
319; wrong number-forms, 312-16;— sum- 
mary, 310. 

Punctuation, 21; Pt. I, p. 12-13; of series, 
72, 99; of compound sentence, 96, 534; of 
complex sent., 325, 343; comma, 72, 96, 
99, 148, 325, 543, 589; colon and semicolon, 
534; period, 23; question mark, 25; ex- 
clamation point, 25, 105, 551. [591, 6. 

Quotation, Pt. I, p. 12; as part of base, 

Regular verbs, 419-20. 

Relative pronoun, 275-8; construction, 299. 

Responsives, 500. 

Review exercises, pp. 28, 32, 37, 46, 51, 58, 
63, 66, 94, 103, 274; and at the end of each 
chapter. 

Sentence, 11-19; kinds, 15-18,94-5, 305-6; 
base of, 123, 125, 591; compound, 90-6, 
591-6; complex, 305, 591-6; compound 
complex, 306; interrogative and negative, 
447; simple, 94; structure, 34-40, 108, etc. 

Sentence-analysis, 152, etc. 

Sentence-building, 107, etc. 

S-form of verbs, 398-400; errors in using, 
477-88; spelling of , 415. 

Shall, will, 428-31; errors, 468-72. 

Simple sentence, 94; analysis, 154. 

Spelling, plurals, 191-6; verbs, 415. 

Subject, 26-9; affirmative and negative, 
487; anticipative, 303; collective, 479-81; 
connected, 482-87; essential, 40, 41, 4S; 
indefinite, 304- infinitive as, 560; inverted 
order, 159; modified, 37, 41, 63; nouns 
as, 211; omitted, 591a, 395; pronouns as, 
317-8; third singular, 477; thou, 400 a; 
wrong case-form, 318. 

Subjective complement, 120; infinitive as, 
560, 565 a; noun, 212; participle, 584; 



phrase, 133, 591; with passive pi ase, 348, 
note; position, 300. 

Subjunctive, 394-6; forms, 473; use, 474-5. 

Suffixes, 248, 510. See Inflection. 

Summary, see each part of speech. 

Syntax, see Constructions. 

Tenses, 380-9, 460; errors, 464, 577; names, 
443; of participles, p. 267, note; special 
meaning, 3S3, 386. 

Tense-phrases, future, 428-31; perfect, 438- 
443. 

Test questions, see Review. 

That, adjective pronoun, 286-7; conjunc- 
tion, 538; plural, 343; relative pronoun, 
278; when used, 323. 

There, 159, 502. 

Titles, plural of, 198. 

To, with infinitive, 557-8, 564a; alone, 575; 
omitted, 563, 569; position, 574. 

Transitive verbs, 113-17, 121, 371-2; used 
intransitively, 115, 376; Avith objective 
complement, 233-6, 347-8; with two ob- 
jects, 223. 

Transposition, 160. See Order. 

Use, see Construction. 

Verbal adjectives, 402-4, 408-12, p. 215, 
552-4, 578-90. 

Verbal nouns, 250, 184, 2; infinitives, 259, 
402-7, p. 215, 552-3, 555-73, 412. 

Verbs, 59, 42, 55-60, 367-488; kinds, 369, 
etc.; complete, 63, 370; copulative, 108-12, 
371-5 ; incomplete, 62, 107 ; transitive, 113- 
17, 121, as intransitive, 376. 

Inflection, 379, etc., 414; combined with 
prepositions, 453; conjugation, 413-54, 
new and old, p. 201, note ; derivation, 461, 
547, IV; double forms, 422; emphatic 
phrase, 446-7; infinitive, 553, etc.; mood, 
390-97; number and person, 398-401; par- 
ticiples, 553, etc.; passive phrase, 448-53; 
perfect tenses, 438-43; potential phrase, 
432-7; principal parts, 421; progressive 
phrase, 444; regular and irregular, 420-21, 
list of, p. 202; solemn forms, 400, 414 
(6), 427 a; spelling, 415; subjunctive, 
473-5; tense, 380-89, 460. 

Construction, 123-5, 460; agreement, 
399-401, 476-88;- as other parts of speech, 
403; with collective subject, 479-81; with 
connected subjects, 482-7; independent, 
548 (2); with complement, 120-22; with 
objective complement, 347-8; — modifiers, 
151, 593 ; — parsing, 455-60 ; — errors in 
form, 462-88; with relative as subject, 488; 
shall and will, 468-72; in subjunctive 
forms, 473; — verbs omitted, 486. 

Verb-phrase, 60, 57,424-54; formation, 425; 
emphatic, 446; future, 428; passive, 449; 
perfect, 438; potential, 432; separated, 
430; progressive, 444. 

Vocative, 230, 1. 

Voice, 448, 452. 

AVhat, 279-80. 

Will for shall, 468-72. 

Words, choice of, 10, Pt. I, Chap. X; 
kinds, 42, etc. ; use, 9, 35-6. 



1 1 



■">* 




■ 


• 



^■H 

^^^n 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




003 237 914 A 



SHI 

HHHH1M 



'*>>• H 



-.v*^ 



